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Most historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c. 5500 – c. 3300 BC by a West Asian people who spoke the Sumerian language (pointing to the names of cities, rivers, basic occupations, etc., as evidence), a non-Semitic and non-Indo-European agglutinative language isolate.

The Blau Monuments combine proto-cuneiform characters and illustrations of early Sumerians, Jemdet Nasr period, 3100–2700 BC. British Museum.

Others have suggested that the Sumerians were a North African people who migrated from the Green Sahara into the Middle East and were responsible for the spread of farming in the Middle East. However, with evidence strongly suggesting the first farmers originated from the Fertile Crescent, this suggestion is often discarded. Although not specifically discussing Sumerians, Lazaridis et al. 2016 have suggested a partial North African origin for some pre-Semitic cultures of the Middle East, particularly Natufians, after testing the genomes of Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture-bearers.

Alternatively, a recent (2013) genetic analysis of four ancient Mesopotamian skeletal DNA samples suggests an association of the Sumerians with Indus Valley Civilisation, possibly as a result of ancient Indus–Mesopotamia relations. According to some data, the Sumerians are associated with the Hurrians and Urartians, and the Caucasus is considered their homeland.

A prehistoric people who lived in the region before the Sumerians have been termed the "Proto-Euphrateans" or "Ubaidians", and are theorized to have evolved from the Samarra culture of northern Mesopotamia. The Ubaidians, though never mentioned by the Sumerians themselves, are assumed by modern-day scholars to have been the first civilizing force in Sumer. They drained the marshes for agriculture, developed trade, and established industries, including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry, and pottery.

Enthroned Sumerian king of Ur, possibly Ur-Pabilsag, with attendants. Standard of Ur, c. 2600 BC.

Some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Reliable historical records begin much later; there are none in Sumer of any kind that have been dated before Enmebaragesi (Early Dynastic I). Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of Eastern Arabia, today's Persian Gulf region, before it was flooded at the end of the Ice Age.

Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period (4th millennium BC), continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. The Sumerians progressively lost control to Semitic states from the northwest. Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC (short chronology), but Sumerian continued as a sacred language. Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Third Dynasty of Ur at approximately 2100–2000 BC, but the Akkadian language also remained in use for some time.

The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is considered to have been one of the oldest cities, where three separate cultures may have fused: that of peasant Ubaidian farmers, living in mud-brick huts and practicing irrigation; that of mobile nomadic Semitic pastoralists living in black tents and following herds of sheep and goats; and that of fisher folk, living in reed huts in the marshlands, who may have been the ancestors of the Sumerians.

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In Sumerian mythology, the Underworld was known as Kur, and it was ruled by the goddess Ereshkigal. The Babylonians also had a similar concept of the Underworld, which they called Irkalla.

According to Sumerian mythology, the Underworld was a dark and gloomy place where the souls of the dead went after they passed away. The journey to the Underworld was perilous, and the souls had to navigate through seven gates, each guarded by a different deity.

Once in the Underworld, the souls were judged by Ereshkigal and her consort, Nergal. The souls were then assigned to different levels of the Underworld based on their deeds in life. The worst offenders were sent to the lowest level, where they were subjected to eternal torment.

The Babylonians had a similar concept of the Underworld, but their version was more complex. According to Babylonian mythology, the Underworld was divided into several levels, each with its own ruler. The souls of the dead had to pass through each level, facing different challenges and obstacles along the way.

One of the most famous stories from Babylonian mythology is the tale of Ishtar's descent into the Underworld. Ishtar was the goddess of love and fertility, and she decided to visit the Underworld to rescue her lover, Tammuz. However, she was unable to pass through the gates of the Underworld, and she was forced to remove her clothing and jewelry as payment to the gatekeepers.

The seven deities that guard each of the seven gates in the Underworld are named: 1) Neti, 2) Gedu, 3) Ennugi, 4) Ninkasi, 5) Ninimma, 6) Enbilulu, and 7) Dumuzid/SISTER. These deities were believed to have the power to judge the souls of the deceased and determine their fate in the afterlife. It was believed that those who were deemed worthy would be granted access to the afterlife, while those who were deemed unworthy would be condemned to eternal suffering.

The purpose of each of the seven gates in the Underworld is to prevent the dead from escaping and to ensure that they are judged fairly before being allowed to enter the afterlife. Each gate is guarded by a different deity, and each deity has a specific role in the judgment process. The first gate is guarded by the god Neti, who checks the name of the deceased against a list of those who are allowed to enter. The second gate is guarded by the god Gedu, who weighs the heart of the deceased against a feather to determine if they have lived a good life. The third gate is guarded by the goddess Lahamu, who judges the deceased based on their deeds in life. The fourth gate is guarded by the god Shala, who determines if the deceased has been faithful to their spouse. The fifth gate is guarded by the goddess Ninlil, who judges the deceased based on their knowledge and wisdom. The sixth gate is guarded by the god Nergal, who determines if the deceased has been a good ruler or leader. The seventh and final gate is guarded by the goddess Ereshkigal, who judges the deceased based on their overall worthiness to enter the afterlife.

Ereshkigal is a prominent figure in Sumerian and Babylonian mythology, known as the goddess of the Underworld. She is the sister of the god of the sky, Anu, and the god of the earth, Enlil. Ereshkigal is often depicted as a fearsome and powerful goddess, ruling over the dead and the spirits of the Underworld.

Ereshkigal held a senior status among the underworld deities, ruling over the category of so-called "transtigridian snake gods"

Two Minoan snake goddess figurines were excavated in 1903 in the Minoan palace at Knossos in the Greek island of Crete.

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The oldest known god in written history is typically considered to be Anu, the sky god, worshiped by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) around 4,000 BCE. Anu was part of the Sumerian

pantheon and was later incorporated into the pantheon of other civilizations in the

region, such as the Akkadians and Babylonians. Anu was believed to be the father

of the gods and the ruler of the heavens.

It's important to note that there may have been older gods or deities worshiped by

prehistoric cultures that did not have written records. Archaeological evidence

suggests that religious beliefs and practices existed long before the invention of

writing. However, without written records, it is Anu & his daughter Ishtar, the morning star, who show up in the beginning.

The oldest known tablet or inscription mentioning the god Anu comes from the

ancient Sumerian city of Uruk and dates back to around 2500 BCE. This tablet,

known as the Uruk King List, is a historical document that lists the kings of Uruk in

chronological order. Among the names of the kings, there is a reference to Anu,

indicating his prominence as a deity in that period.

Additionally, Anu is mentioned in several other ancient Sumerian texts, such as

hymns, prayers, and myths, which provide further insights into the role and

significance of this god in Sumerian religious beliefs. These texts were written on

clay tablets and have been discovered at various archaeological sites in

Mesopotamia, including the cities of Nippur, Ur, and Eridu.

It's worth noting that these inscriptions and tablets are the oldest known

references to Anu specifically, but it is likely that the worship of Anu predates

these written records, possibly by several centuries or more.

Anu is considered the god of the heavens, and his name

is often translated as "sky" or "firmament." Although the word AN is interchangable with the word logogram for the word GOD "diĝir", and it is theorized that the word AN, is cognate with the proto indo european root for the word ONE, which also is AN or EIN, showing ANU as a possible proto-Monad concept of "the ONE".

Anu is the son of Anshar and Kishar, who are

primordial deities associated with the horizon and the earth. Anu is depicted as a

mighty and wise god who resides in the highest heaven, ruling over the other

gods. He is often portrayed as the father or progenitor of other deities, including

Enlil and Ea (also known as Enki). Anu's role as the supreme deity is sometimes

overshadowed by other gods such as Enlil or Marduk, who gained more

prominence in later periods. Nevertheless, Anu retains his status as the head of

the pantheon and the ultimate authority.

Anu's role in the divine hierarchy is also reflected in the Mesopotamian cosmology,

where he occupies the highest level of the universe, separated from the earth and

its inhabitants. He is associated with the celestial realm, divine laws, and the

ordering of the cosmos. In the Akkadian mythology of Babylon, Anu is considered the chief god and the father of all other gods. He plays a crucial role in the creation story known as the

Enuma Elish, where he gives birth to the god Ea and grants him authority over the

earth.

The god OURANOS in Greek mythology seems to have a similar role as "the firmament, or Heavens" god.

Or Sky Father: Both Anu and Ouranos are considered the personifications of the sky and are regarded as sky kings. They are associated with the heavens and are seen as the rulers of the celestial realm. Both Anu and Ouranos are considered primordial

deities, existing at the beginning of creation. They are among the earliest

divine beings in their respective mythologies.

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Lucy, the discovery of this 3.2 million-year-old fossil skeleton was such a monumental

breakthrough and what it meant for our understanding of human evolution.

In 1974, a team of researchers led by the renowned paleoanthropologist Dr.

Donald Johanson made a groundbreaking find in the Afar region of Hadar,

Ethiopia. They unearthed an almost complete fossil skeleton belonging to an early

human ancestor of our species, whom they affectionately named Lucy after the

Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds."

The oldest known religion in Ethiopia is a traditional belief system called "Ethiopian

Traditional Religion" or "Ethiopian indigenous faith." This religious practice

predates the arrival of Christianity and Islam in the region by thousands of years. It encompasses a wide

range of spiritual beliefs and practices that have been passed down through

generations and are deeply rooted in Ethiopian culture and heritage.

Ethiopian Religion is characterized by its strong connection to nature,

ancestral worship, and the belief in supernatural forces and spirits. It incorporates

elements of animism, where various aspects of the natural world, such as rivers,

mountains, and trees, are considered to possess spiritual essence and are revered

accordingly.

The practice of Ethiopian Traditional Religion involves rituals, ceremonies, and

offerings to appease and seek blessings from ancestral spirits and deities. These

rituals often take place in sacred sites, such as forests, mountains, or ancient

stone structures known as "mazgabas."

The Aksumite religion, also known as the Aksumite Polytheism, refers to the

religious practices and beliefs of the Aksumite Empire, an ancient kingdom located

in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea.

The primary deity of the Aksumite religion was the god Mahrem, also known as

Astar, who was considered the supreme god and the protector of the Aksumite

kingdom. Mahrem was associated with the sky, rain, and fertility. The Aksumite

kings, who held significant religious and political authority, were believed to be

direct descendants of Mahrem, solidifying their divine status and legitimacy.

In addition to Mahrem, the Aksumite pantheon included other gods and

goddesses, such as Astar, Beher, Meder, and Waraqa. Each deity had specific

domains and was worshipped for various purposes, including fertility, protection,

agriculture, and prosperity.

The Aksumites also practiced ancestor worship, believing that deceased ancestors

played a role in the spiritual well-being and guidance of the living. They would

honor and venerate their ancestors through rituals and offerings, seeking their

blessings and assistance.

The Aksumite religion was closely intertwined with the political and cultural

aspects of the empire. Temples and religious structures, such as the famous

Stelae of Aksum, were erected to honor the gods and commemorate the rulers.

Ritual ceremonies, sacrifices, and festivals were held to celebrate important

events, agricultural cycles, and religious observances.

With the spread of Christianity in the 4th century CE, the Aksumite religion began

to decline. Christianity eventually became the dominant religion in the region and

played a significant role in shaping Ethiopian culture and identity.

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The origins and ethnic identity of the Pelasgians are uncertain. Some ancient sources believe they were an indigenous people of Greece, while others suggest they might have migrated from different regions, including the Black Sea Regions, Anatolia or the Balkans. Their precise ethnicity and language remain unresolved, though a combination of Proto-Indo European and Native Mediterannean is the most likely.

The earliest references to the Pelasgians can

be found in ancient Greek literature, particularly in the works of Homer,

Herodotus, and Thucydides.

In the Iliad, there were Pelasgians on both sides of the Trojan War. WHen Homer explains who the Ancient Trojans were, Pelasgians are mentioned between the Hellespontine cities and Thrace. Homer calls their town or district "Larisa" and characterises it as fertile, and its inhabitants as celebrated for their spearsmanship. He records their chiefs as Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus, son of Teutamides. The Iliad also refers to the camp at Greece, specifically at "Argos Pelasgikon", which is most likely to be the plain of Thessaly, and to "Pelasgic Zeus", living in and ruling over Dodona. According to Homer, Pelasgians were camping out on the shore together with the following tribes:

"Towards the sea lie the Carians and the Paeonians, with curved bows, and the Leleges and Caucones, and the goodly Pelasgi."

In the Odyssey, they appear among the inhabitants of Crete. Which would possibly equate them with the Minoans themselves, who invented Purple Dye and migrated east towards coastal Levant and conquered Egypt.

Odysseus, affecting to be Cretan himself, instances Pelasgians among the tribes in the ninety cities of Crete, "language mixing with language side by side".Last on his list, Homer distinguishes them from other ethnicities on the island: "Cretans proper", Achaeans, Cydonians, Dorians, and "noble Pelasgians".

A fragment from Hesiod, calls Dodona, identified by reference to "the oak", the "seat of Pelasgians", thus explaining why Homer, in referring to Zeus as he ruled over Dodona, did not style him "Dodonic" but Pelasgic Zeus. He mentions also that Pelasgus was the father of King Lycaon of Arcadia.

Asius of Samos claimed that Pelasgus as the first man, born of the earth.This account features centrally in the construction of an enduring autochthonous Arcadian identity into the Classical period. In a fragment by Pausanias, he cites Asius who describes the foundational hero of the Greek ethnic groups as "godlike Pelasgus [whom the] black earth gave up".

Sophocles, in one of his famous plays, presents Inachus, as the elder in the lands of Argos, the Heran hills and among the Tyrsenoi Pelasgoi, an unusual hyphenated noun construction, "Tyrsenians-Pelasgians". Interpretation is open, even though translators typically make a decision, but Tyrsenians may well be the ethnonym Tyrrhenoi. A possible connection to the city of Tyre, a possible location where many Minoan Migrants moved to.

All of this comes into context when we examine the writings of Pherecydes of Syros, the famous Pre-Socratic, who claims to have in his posession, the Pelasgian Creation myth, who he says was given to him by Phoenican Scholars.

The sequence of Pherecydes' creation myth is as follows. First, there are the eternal gods Zas (Zeus), Chthoniê (Gaia) and Chronos (Kronos). Then Chronos creates elements in niches in the earth with his seed, from which other gods arise. This is followed by the three-day wedding of Zas and Chthonie.

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The Theogony (from the Greek theogonia, meaning "generations of the gods") is an epic poem of 1,022 hexameter lines which describes the birth of the gods in the Greek pantheon. It is thought to have been composed c. 700 BCE (give or take a generation either side of that date). Little is known of Hesiod's life. His father emigrated from Cyme in Asia Minor and settled in Boeotia, a small state in central Greece. It is assumed that the poet was a farmer; a fact garnered from the early verses of the Theogony. He may also have been a rhapsodist, a reciter of poetry, where he learned the technique and vocabulary of heroic songs.

Although there are some who question whether or not Hesiod actually wrote the Theogony, most classicists believe he did. However, parts of the work may have been added by later poets and there is a definite similarity in some aspects to earlier Mesopotamian literature.

The Enuma Elish (also known as The Seven Tablets of Creation) is the Babylonian creation myth whose title is derived from the opening lines of the piece, "When on High". The myth tells the story of the great god Marduk's victory over the forces of chaos and his establishment of order at the creation of the world.

All of the tablets containing the myth (also known as Enuma Elis), found at Ashur, Kish, Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh, Sultantepe, and other excavated sites, date to c. 1200 BCE. Their colophons, however, indicate that these are all copies of a much older version of the myth dating from long before the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 BCE), the king who elevated the god Marduk to patron deity of Babylon. The poem in its present form, with Marduk as champion, is thought to be a revision of an even older Sumerian work.

the Sumerian Ea/Enki or Enlil is thought to have played the major role in the original version of the story, which is dated to the 3,500 BCE

Hesiod's "Theogony" and the Enuma Elish are both ancient epic poems that

explore the creation of the universe and the origins of the gods in different

mythological traditions. While they come from different cultures and time periods,

there are several similarities between the two works:

Creation of the universe: Both "Theogony" and the Enuma Elish

describe the process of creation and the establishment of order in the

cosmos. They present elaborate cosmogonies that explain how the world

came into existence and how the gods emerged.

Primordial deities: Both poems feature primordial deities who

precede the main pantheon of gods. These primordial beings represent

abstract concepts and forces of nature. For example, in "Theogony," Chaos

(the void) is the initial entity from which everything else originates, while in the

Enuma Elish, Tiamat represents the primeval sea.

Genealogy of gods: Both works provide genealogies of the gods,

tracing their lineage and relationships. They present a hierarchy of gods and

goddesses, with different generations of deities and their interactions shaping

the world and its divine order.

Divine conflicts: Both poems depict conflicts among the gods that

lead to the establishment of order. In "Theogony," the Titans rebel against

their father Uranus, and later the Olympian gods overthrow the Titans. In the

Enuma Elish, the younger gods, led by Marduk, battle against the primordial

goddess Tiamat and her forces.

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Cyprus has a long history, with evidence of human habitation dating back as far as

the 10th millennium BC. These earliest inhabitants are believed to have been

hunter-gatherers who crossed over to the island from the nearby regions of the

Middle East.

The first major wave of civilization in Cyprus was during the Neolithic period,

around 7000-6000 BC, when farming communities began to develop. The Bronze

Age, which started around 2500 BC, brought significant advancements in

metallurgy and commerce.

Cyprus has since been occupied by a series of different civilizations including the

Mycenaean Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantines, Arab caliphates, French

Lusignan, Venetians, Ottoman Turks, and British.

The Neolithic period on Cyprus, also known as the New Stone Age, is

characterized by significant advancements in human technology and culture. It's

believed to have started around 8200-7000 BC and lasted until about 3900 BC,

spanning the Aceramic (without pottery) and Ceramic (with pottery) Neolithic

periods.

In the Aceramic Neolithic period (8200-5200 BC), Cyprus saw its first permanent

human settlements. The inhabitants lived in round houses and survived mainly by

hunting, gathering, and fishing. The Khirokitia culture is a well-known example of

this period, with a well-preserved archaeological site that has provided a great

deal of information about the early settlers' way of life. The Khirokitia people are

known for their innovative architecture, including stone round houses, which were

often partially buried in the ground for insulation.

The Ceramic Neolithic period (ca. 4500-3900 BC) marked the introduction of

pottery, more sophisticated tools, and the beginnings of agriculture. The Sotira

culture is a significant group from this period. During this time, Cyprus had

significant interactions with the surrounding regions, especially the Levantine

coast, as evidenced by the commonality in certain types of pottery and other

artifacts.

Despite being an island, Cyprus had a rich Neolithic culture that closely mirrored

the major developments happening on the mainland at the same time. The

evidence of these ancient cultures provides invaluable insights into the human

journey from hunter-gatherers to settled farming communities.

The Copper Age, also known as the Chalcolithic Age, in Cyprus is believed to have

begun around 3900 BC and continued until the advent of the Bronze Age around

2500 BC. This period is characterized by the development and use of copper, in

addition to stone, for tools and other items.

While farming continued to be the primary source of sustenance during the

Copper Age, the inhabitants of Cyprus began to master the smelting and working

of copper, which was abundant on the island. This allowed for the production of

more durable tools, weapons, and other objects, facilitating a significant

advancement in technology.

The Cypriot Chalcolithic period is also noted for the production of distinctively

decorated pottery, and for the beginning of trade relations with the surrounding

regions. Artifacts from this period, such as cruciform figurines, plank-shaped

figurines, and pottery with complex incised decoration, show a sophistication in

their craftsmanship. These artifacts indicate that society was becoming more

complex, with the development of new rituals and social norms.

In terms of settlement, people during this period tended to live in small villages,

usually built on hills, which allowed them to easily defend themselves. The

architecture was simple, generally featuring round or rectangular houses.

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Despite their ancient origins, the Anunnaki have been subject to many

contemporary reinterpretations, notably in various fringe theories and works of pseudo-history. These often involve extraterrestrial influences and other speculative concepts, but these ideas are not supported by mainstream scholarship or historical evidence. But more on that later as well. The mythology of the Anunnaki is complex and spans several ancient cultures, with the earliest accounts coming from the Sumerians. Their stories, like many ancient mythologies, attempt to explain the origin of the world, the nature of gods and humanity, and the laws that govern existence.

In Sumerian mythology, the Anunnaki were initially viewed as celestial deities associated with various aspects of life and nature. However, the term Anunnaki gradually came to be associated more specifically with chthonic (underworld)

deities. In Mesopotamian mythology, the term "Anunnaki" was used to refer to deities in general, but it was often specifically associated with the deities of the underworld, the realm of the dead. However, this does not necessarily imply a negative or punitive association. In many ancient cultures, the world was perceived as a multitiered structure, often divided into heavens, earth, and underworld. Gods and goddesses were assigned to different realms based on their roles and functions.

The Anunnaki are depicted in various myths as judges in the underworld, ruling over the fate of the dead. For instance, the goddess Ereshkigal, the queen of the underworld, and Nergal, the god of death and plague, were both considered part of the Anunnaki. The reason why many of the Anunnaki were associated with the underworld is likely related to the Sumerians' beliefs about life, death, and the afterlife. The underworld, known as Kur or Irkalla, was considered a dreary, dark place where the

spirits of the dead existed in a shadowy version of their earthly life, sustained by libations and offerings from the living.

The Nephilim, as depicted in biblical traditions, are the offspring of the sons of gods (or fallen angels) and are described as giants.

In general, the Anunnaki and the fallen angels, who give birth to giants, or Nephilim, are separate entities from distinct cultural and religious contexts: Mesopotamian mythology and Hebrew religion, respectively.

Both undergo the wrath of God and try to teach humans knowledge.

Both the Anunnaki and the fallen angels are seen as powerful

beings with the ability to influence humanity.

The Book of Enoch, an ancient Jewish religious work, ascribes the origins of sin and corruption on earth to a group of angels known as the "Watchers," who fell from grace by mating with human women and teaching humanity forbidden knowledge. But rather than the Anunnaki, This story shares more elements with the myth of the apkallu, seven wise

men or demigods in Mesopotamian mythology who were created by the god Enki (a member of the Anunnaki) to establish culture and give civilization to mankind.

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The Etruscans, who lived primarily in the region now

known as Tuscany, emerged around the 8th century BCE. They had a

significant impact on the early Roman civilization and were eventually

absorbed by the Romans.

There were also various Italic tribes, including the

Latins, Sabines, and Samnites, who lived in the Italian peninsula from around

the 2nd millennium BCE. The Latins were the tribe from which the Romans

emerged.

Starting from the 8th century BCE, the Greeks established

colonies in southern Italy and Sicily, an area that was often referred to as

Magna Graecia.

Aeneas, a legendary figure of both Trojan and Roman mythology, is renowned as

the son of the divine Aphrodite and mortal Anchises. A part of Troy's royal lineage

and a kin of Hector, Aeneas was a distinguished defender of his city during the

Trojan War, demonstrating martial prowess second only to Hector himself. Homer's

work subtly hints at Aeneas' discontent with his secondary role, thereby giving rise

to a later narrative that posits Aeneas as a conspirator in Troy's betrayal to the

Greeks. However, a more prevalent version of his story portrays Aeneas as the

helm of the Trojan survivors following the Greek conquest of Troy. Regardless of

these divergent accounts, the common thread in all the narratives is the survival of

Aeneas, enabling him to be woven into the fabric of Roman mythology.

The connection of Homeric heroes to Italy and Sicily can be traced back to the 8th

century BCE, coinciding with the era when Homer's epics are believed to have

transitioned into written form. Greek colonies, established in Italy and Sicily during

this period and the ensuing century, often claimed lineage from figures central to

the Trojan War. Aeneas, in particular, was associated with various locales and

dynasties, notably within the region of Latium. As the Roman Empire expanded

throughout Italy and across the Mediterranean, Roman authors imbued with a

sense of patriotism sought to craft a mythological tradition that would

simultaneously infuse their land with historical grandeur and subdue an underlying

resentment towards Greek cultural hegemony. Aeneas, in his role as a Trojan

adversary of the Greeks, and with a post-war narrative open to interpretation, was

uniquely suited to embody the mythical precursor to the inception of Roman

supremacy.

Composed circa 29-19 BCE, Virgil's Aeneid narrates across 12 books the mythic

establishment of Lavinium, the precursor to Alba Longa and Rome, by the Trojan

hero Aeneas. As Virgil recounts, when the Greeks seized Troy, a resilient Aeneas

was instructed by the apparition of Hector to escape and initiate a significant city

abroad. Mustering his family and followers, Aeneas secured the penates—

household deities—of Troy. However, amidst the chaos of evacuation from the

burning city, his wife vanished. Her spirit later appeared to him, revealing his

destiny to venture to a land in the west where the Tiber River coursed.

Thus began Aeneas's epic journey, with stops in Thrace, Crete, and Sicily, and

fraught with a plethora of trials culminating in a shipwreck near Carthage on the

African coast. Here, he was hospitably received by Dido, the bereaved queen. As

he narrated his tale, they fell in love and he delayed his journey until a stern

reminder from the god Mercury refocused him on his ultimate objective: Rome.

Wracked with guilt, he immediately deserted Dido, who subsequently ended her

own life. Resuming his voyage, Aeneas eventually reached the mouth of the Tiber.

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