Incomplet Design History

The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded in 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale. The Black Panther Party was founded during the turbulent times of the sixties that saw many changes in America. Newton at first led the party with an ideology called their Ten Point Program, and with the idea that arming Black communities was essential for their protection and survival. Through community assistance programs and armed community patrols to prevent police brutality, the Black Panther Party sought to protect and uplift their communities, stepping in where the government had failed them.  In order to promote their party’s ideals, generate revenue, and recruit new members, the Party began publishing the Black Panther newspaper. It grew from 4 pages to 32, adding color and better design under the direction of Emory Douglas who was the Black Panthers’ Minister of Culture and the paper’s editor. Douglas’s skills as a graphic designer and illustrator produced the imagery that would define not only the Black Panther Party but the entire Black Power movement. The success of the paper grew, had distribution across the United States, and later reached other countries as well. Internal strife among leadership and members, as well as extensive government interference, led to the crumbling of the Black Panther Party. With it went their iconic newspaper that for over a decade was a visual record of the Black Panther Party, the Black Power movement, and the struggle for civil rights.

1827 – Freedom’s Journal first published
1936 – Robert George Seale was born in Liberty, Texas
1942 – Huey Percy Newton is born in Monroe, Louisiana 
1943 – Emory Douglas was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan
1960 – Emory Douglas started studying Graphic Design at City College of San Francisco 
1963 – Martin Luther King Jr delivers “I Have A Dream” speech
1965 – Lowndes County Freedom Organization was founded by Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in Alabama
1966 – Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale met in Oakland, CA, and founded The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense
1966 – BPP developed survival programs 
1967 – California Governor Ronald Regan signed Mulford Act 
1967 – Sale and Newton established the BPP first headquarters in Oakland, CA
1967 – Black Panther Intercommunal News Service
1967 – Newton was shot and jailed after a standoff with a police officer
1967 – Emory Douglas met Newton and Seale and joins the BPP
1967 – David Hilliard, BPP chief of staff, first arrested for selling the Newspaper
1968 – Kerner Commission publishes findings on potential race war; faults white institutions
1968 – Martin Luther King Jr assassinated, race riots erupt across USA 
1968 – Newton was convicted of manslaughter for killing a police officer 
1970 – FBI memo says circulation for BPP Newspaper was 139,000 a week
1970 – Newton was released due to his conviction being overturned on appeal
1971 – Newton shifts BPP focus to community programs, leadership is challenged by other part members 
1971 – Newton expels 21 members, the “panther 21” over rumors of kidnapping and fratricide; also expels Eldridge Cleaver over suspicions of assassination through letters
1971 – Cleaver’s followers tied up Sam Napier in NY distribution office for the BPP newspaper and shot him, set fire to office
1974 – Netwon fled to Cuba on accusations of murdering a prostitute, Elaine Brown takes over as leader of BPP
1974 – End of BPP
1977 – Newton returns to California to stand trial for the murder of a prostitute
1978 – Jonina Abron takes over as editor of BPP Newspaper 
1980 – Last year BPP Newspaper is published 

Alkebulan, P. (2012). Survival pending revolution: The history of the Black Panther Party. The University of Alabama Press. 

Berry, A. H., Collie, K., Laker, P. A., Noel, L.-A., Rittner, J., & Walters, K. (2022). The black experience in design: Identity, Expression & Reflection. Allworth Press. 

bperki8. (n.d.). R/communism - A complete archive of the Black Panther Party's newspapers from beginning to end. reddit ; r/communism. Retrieved June 2, 2016, from https://www.reddit.com/r/communism/comments/4m7axa/a\_complete\_archive\_of\_the\_black\_panther\_partys/

Carroll, F. (2017). Race News: Black journalists and the fight for racial justice in the Twentieth Century. University of Illinois Press. 

Carroll, F. J. (2011). Race News: How black reporters and readers shaped the fight for racial justice, 1877-1978 (thesis). Fred Carroll, Ann Arbor, MI. 

Duncan, M. (2016). Emory Douglas and the art of the black panther party. Spectrum: A Journal on Black Men, 5(1), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.2979/spectrum.5.1.06

Fagan, B. (2018). The Black Newspaper and the Chosen Nation. The University of Georgia Press. 

FEARNLEY, A. M. (2018). The Black Panther Party's publishing strategies and the financial underpinnings of activism, 1968–1975. The Historical Journal, 62(1), 195–217. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x18000201

Freedom Archives (n.d.). Black Panther Party Community News Service. Freedom Archives Search Engine. Retrieved April 7, 2022, from https://search.freedomarchives.org/search.php?view\_collection=90&page=1

G., L. B. H. (1974). Perspectives of the Black Press, 1974. Mercer House Press. 

Harris, J. C. (2000). Revolutionary black nationalism: The Black Panther Party. The Journal of Negro History , 85(3), 162–174. 

Hilliard, D. (2008). The Black Panther Party: Service to the people programs. University of New Mexico Press. 

Hilliard, D. (2007). The black panther: Intercommunal News Service. Atria Books. 

Hilliard, D. (2002). This side of glory: The autobiography of David Hilliard and the story of the Black Panther Party. Chicago Review Press. 

Jackson, T. (2016). Pioneering cartoonists of color. University Press of Mississippi. 

Jeffries, J. L. (2011). On the ground. Univ. Press of Mississippi. 

Jennings, B. X. (2019, May 22). Remembering the Black Panther Party newspaper, April 25, 1967- September 1980. San Francisco Bay View. Retrieved April 7, 2022, from http://sfbayview.com/2015/05/remembering-the-black-panther-party-newspaper-april-25-1967-september-1980/

Kifner, J. (1998, May 2). Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther Who Became G.O.P. Conservative, Is Dead at 62. New York Times, pp. 8–8. 

Michaeli, E. (2018). The defender how the legendary Black Newspaper Changed America: From the age of the pullman porters to the age of obama. Mariner Books/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 

Morgan, J.-A. (2020). The Black Arts Movement and the Black Panther Party in American Visual culture. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. 

Ng, D. (2007, October 18). Art; So you want a revolution? Check out Emory Douglas' art for the Black Panthers. LA Times.

Ongiri, A. A. (2010). Spectacular blackness the cultural politics of the Black Power movement and the search for a black aesthetic. University of Virginia Press. 

Psaltis, A.-A. (2018). ARTPOLITICAL environment: Richard Bell and Emory Douglas’s Burnett Lane mural. Electronic Melbourne Art Journal, (10). https://doi.org/10.38030/emaj.2018.10.1

Scott, V. H. F. (2021). Art, global maoism and the Chinese Cultural Revolution. (J. Galimberti & N. De Haro Garcia, Eds.). MANCHESTER UNIV PRESS. 

Shames, S., & Seale, B. (2016). Power to the people: The world of the black panthers. Abrams. 

Smethurst, J. E. (2006). The Black Arts Movement: Literary nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. The University of North Carolina Press. 

Suggs, H. L. (1983). The Black Press in the South, 1865-1979. Greenwood Press.

Thornton, B., & Cassidy, W. P. (2008). Black newspapers in 1968 offer Panthers Little Support. Newspaper Research Journal, 29(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/073953290802900102  

Waters, E. P. (1987). American Diary: A personal history of the Black Press. Path Press.

In 1922 William Harmon, a white real estate mogul from Ohio, started the Harmon foundation which, among other things, supported Black artists. His hope for the foundation was that it would help these artists gain recognition and help them to sell their work, regardless of their skin color. The foundation organized exhibitions and awards for Black artists, all with the explicit intent to stimulate their success. Despite its good intentions, the foundation met with criticism from the Black community. The work the foundation did was seen as patriarchal and fulfilling a “white savior” complex rather than effecting real change and achieving equity. While it can be argued that the Harmon Foundation did a lot to support Black artists, one of the main criticisms is its role in maintaining the segregation of Black artists. Harmon Foundation exhibits featured Black artists alongside other Black artists, instead of integrating with white artists. The foundation's awards were also juried by white judges who selected winners based on a white ideal of excellence rather than understanding the work and its value or role in Black culture. While the Harmon Foundation’s efforts weren’t always welcome, it still spent 45 years promoting Black artists, helping them gain well-deserved attention and recognition.

1862 – b Ohio, William E. Harmon
1887 – Founds Harmon National Real Estate Company
1922 – Harmon Foundation is founded
1925 – Harmon Foundation begins issuing cash awards for distinguished achievement in a number of fields, including fine arts
1925 – Harmon Foundation supports the Religious Motion Picture foundation
1928 – William Harmon dies
1928-33 – Harmon Foundation recognized as first to give national recognition to achievements of African Americans
1933-36 – Harmon Foundation supports films: “The Negro and Art” and “We Are All Artists”
1935 – Artist Romare Beardon accused the foundation of “coddling artists and lowering artistic standards”
1935 – The Harlem Artists Guild founded, to support artists and to pressure the Federal Arts Project to accept more African-American participants
1935 – Harmon National Real Estate Company becomes one of the largest real estate companies in the world
1936 – Harmon Foundation sponsors films: “What Africa Is”, “How Africa Lives”, and “From Fetishes to Faith”.
1938-41 – Harmon Foundation supports film series: “The African Motion Picture Project”
1969 – ‘Harlem on My Mind, 1900-1968’ exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, opens to criticism for absence of Black curators or consulting the Harlem community
1967 – Harmon Foundation ceases operations

Baum, K., Robles, M., & Yount, S. (2021, February 17). “Harlem on Whose Mind?”: The Met and Civil Rights. The Met. Retrieved June 23, 2022, from https://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/now-at-the-met/2021/harlem-on-my-mind

Brown, A. C., III. (2015, January 20). James A. Porter: The Father of African American Art History. The Baltimore Renaissance. Retrieved June 23, 2022, from https://thelyfe.wordpress.com/2015/01/20/james-a-porter-the-father-of-african-american-art-history/#:%7E:text=Porter%3A%20The%20Father%20of%20African%20American%20Art%20History,-Professor%20James%20A&text=James%20Amos%20Porter%20was%20born,of%20Science%20degree%20in%20art.

Harmon Foundation, I. Harmon Foundation, inc., records. [Manuscript/Mixed Material] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://lccn.loc.gov/mm78051615.

Malan, N. E. (1973). Photographs in the Harmon Foundation Collection. African Arts, 6(2), 33–32. https://doi.org/10.2307/3334777

Williams, G. (2013, February 22). African American art and the Harmon Foundation. Smithsonian Libraries / Unbound. https://blog.library.si.edu/blog/2013/02/22/african-american-art-and-the-harmon-foundation/#.YfQ3AljMJ4G

Posters as political tools are nothing new. In the Middle East, two revolutionary movements led to some of the most potent and vibrant posters in design history. The Iranian Revolution and the expulsion of Palestinians due to civil war and the continued fight to reclaim Palestinian homelands from Israel. These posters effectively gave voice to the struggles of ordinary people resisting the influence and meddling of various Western powers. For Iran, that meant keeping the dream of an Islamic state free and independent from Western countries that had been trying for decades to install a democratic government. And once so much of Palestine had been taken over by Israel, the Palestinian resistance fought back with ideas as well as guns. Using powerful graphic imagery common to each of their respective cultures, like calligraphy, Islamic iconography, and the colors red, black, white, and green, resistance posters of both movements kept the fire of resistance burning brightly. The Iranian Revolution effectively concluded once the Shah of Iran was overthrown and power consolidated under the rule of Ayatollah Khomeini in 1979. Palestine wasn’t so lucky. While their resistance began much earlier than Iran’s, their fight still isn’t over and their resistance posters have continued, spilling over into the digital domain in a continued effort to reclaim their native homeland.

1908 – Prince Yusuf Kamal founded the School of Fine Arts in Cairo, Egypt
1917 – Britain made Balfour Declaration to establish Palestine as a place for Jewish people
1921 – Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq declared independence from Britain
1922 – Egypt declared independence from Britain
1934 – University of Tehran Founded in Iran
1941 – Syria declared independence from France
1943 – Lebanon declared independence from France
1945 – End of WW II; Britain hands matter of Palestine to the USA
1948 – 750,000 Palestinians were forced to leave their homes due to Israeli takeover
1947 – United Nations Partition of Palestine, followed by Civil War in Palestine (Arab-Israeli War)
1948 – British completely withdrew from Palestine, and Israeli statehood declared
1949 – Syria's president Husni al-Za’im overthrown by a military coup
 1950-54 – Designer & Artist Ismail Shammout attends the University of Cairo 
1950s – Saqqakhana Group formed 
1951 – Libya declared independence from France
1952 – Egyptian Monarchy overthrown by Free Officers Coup
1953 – USA and UK leaders helped to install Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (overthrew Democratically elected Prime Minister Mossadegh) 
1956 – Sudan declares independence from France, Israel attacked Egypt (Six Days War) 
1958 – Iraq Monarchy overthrown, Shammout studies in a private graphic design workshop in Berlin, Egypt and Syria form the United Arab Republic
1959 – Yasser Arafat founded The Palestinian National Liberation Movement
1963 – Algeria declares independence from France
1965 – The Peoples Mojahedin Iranian organization was founded at the University of Tehran
1967 – Palestine National Liberation Movement joins the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) 
1977- Iranian Revolution begins; Mostafa Khomeini, eldest son of Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, dies of an unknown cause at age 47; Protest & violent, repressive response cycles begin in dozens of Iranian cities. 
1978 – Cinema Rex Fire in Tehran; 477 Iranians killed in fire. 
1978 – Black Friday, where government tanks and helicopters opened fire on 1,000+ protestos in Tehran
1979 –  On Jan. 16, Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi fled Iran ; On Feb. 1st,  Ayatollah Khomeini started The Islamic Republic of Iran as its leader. 
1982 –  PLO expelled from Lebanon, Israeli invasion of Lebanon
1988 –  Palestinian Declaration of Independence

Abedini, R., & Wolbers, H. (2006). New Visual Culture Of Modern Iran. BIS Publishers. 

Adamova, A. T., & Bayani, M. (2015). Persian Painting: The Arts Of The Book And Portraiture . Thames & Hudson. 

Bloom, J. M., & Blair, S. S. (2019). Islamic art: Past, present, future. Yale University Press. 

Charles River Editors. (2014). The Iranian Revolution: The islamic revolution that reshaped the Middle East. CreateSpace. 

Chelkowski, P. (2002, December 15). GRAPHIC ARTS. Encyclopedia Iranica . Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://iranicaonline.org/articles/graphic-arts

Eigner, S. (2015). Art of the Middle East: Modern and contemporary art of the Arab world and Iran. Merrell. 

Fotouhi, S. (2015). The literature of the Iranian diaspora: Meaning and identity since the Islamic Revolution. I.B. Tauris. 

The genius of Iranian graphic design. Graphéine - Agence de communication Paris Lyon. (2022, February 1). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.grapheine.com/en/graphic-design-en/graphic-design-in-iran-persian-heritage-and-modernity

Guity, N. (2012, January 7). Modern Communication Design in Iran. The History of Graphic Design in Iran. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from http://gdiran.blogspot.com/2012/01/this-being-human-is-guest-house.html?view=snapshot

Gumpert, L., & Balaghi, S. (2003). Picturing Iran: Art, society and revolution. I.B. Tauris. 

Hanna Holborn Gray Special Collections Research Center. (n.d.). Guide to the Middle Eastern Posters Collection 1970s-1990s. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.MEPOSTERS&q=iranian+posters

Louis, W. R. (2012). The 1967 arab-israeli war: Origins and consequences. Cambridge University Press. 

Nazar Research and Cultural Institute. (2007). Iranian typography: 50 years of calligraphy and typography in iranian graphic design. 

Osborn, J. R. (2017). Letters of light: Arabic script in calligraphy, print, and Digital Design. Harvard University Press. 

Pappe, I. L. A. N. (2022). History of modern palestine. Cambridge University Press.

Parsons, A. (1984). The pride and the fall: Iran, 1974-1979. J. Cape. 

Pearlman, W. (2014). Violence, nonviolence, and the Palestinian National Movement. Cambridge University Press. 

Qumsiyeh, M. B. (2011). Popular resistance in Palestine a history of hope and empowerment. Pluto Press. 

Rauh, E. (2013, November 26). “Posters and history of the Iranian Revolution”. Graphic Art News. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.graphicart-news.com/posters-and-history-of-the-iranian-revolution-in-history/

ROUTLEDGE. (2019). Rethinking place in South Asian and Islamic art, 1500-present. 

Saikal, A. (2021). Rise and fall of the shah. Princeton University Press. 

Shehab, B., & Nawar, H. (2020). A history of Arab graphic design. The American University in Cairo Press. 

Sheikh Zadegan, A., & Meier, A. (2017). Beyond the islamic revolution perceptions of modernity and tradition in Iran before and after 1979. De Gruyter. 

The University of Chicago Library: The Hanna Holborn Gray Special Collections Research Center. (2011, October 15). The Graphics of Revolution and War: Iranian Poster Arts . The Graphics of Revolution and War - The University of Chicago Library. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/collex/exhibits/graphics-revolution-and-war-iranian-poster-arts/

Sylvia Harris has been described as a public designer, her own words, and a citizen designer, but whatever you want to call it, Harris was dedicated to designing for the good of the people. She was committed to creating designs that helped people to navigate their world. Harris grew up in Richmond, Virginia where she experienced the desegregation of her school, which likely had a significant impact on her entire life.  As a Black designer who was educated and entrenched in modernist design practices, created by western and European “elite” designers, she sought to discover what the Black aesthetic in America was for herself, and she shared her findings with the world. Her work ranges from the redesign of the US Census in 2000, which succeeded in creating a design that resulted in a larger number of responses that were more complete and accurate, to the design for the ACLU’s initial brand design. Sylvia Harris is a designer who can teach us a lot about what it is to be a Black designer in America, where to possibly look for Black designers in graphic design history, as well as what it means to create design for good. 

1953 – b Richmond, Virginia
1959 – State of Virginia is officially desegregated, the state continued to fight desegregation and was not fully desegregated until 1970
1971 - Entered Design school
1975 - Graduates from Virginia Commonwealth University where she was a student of Philip Meggs
1975 - Works for WGBH design department in Boston alongside, Chris Pullman, an AIGA Medalist 
1980 - Graduates from Yale with MFA in design
1980 - Founds 212 Associates with David Gibson & Juanita Dugale
1993 - Hired to redesign the Census (design released in 2000)
1994-1997 - Serves on AIGA board of directors
1994 - Leaves 212 to found her own company Sylvia Harris, LLC
1996 - Publishes What is it? Searching for the Black Aesthetic in American graphic design
2000 - Design census released
2011 - Rebrands her company to focus on “Citizen Research & Design”
2011 - Untimely death, complications due to heart failure she was 57
2014 - posthumously awarded AIGA Medal

AIGA. (n.d.). 2014 AIGA Medalist: Sylvia Harris. AIGA. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.aiga.org/inspiration/talks/sylvia-harris-2014-aiga-medalist-sylvia-harris

Allbrittin, D. (2021, December 14). Richmond Schools today: RPS still fighting to improve segregation, 51 years after busing. ABC 8 News. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.wric.com/news/local-news/richmond/richmond-schools-today-rps-still-fighting-to-improve-segregation-51-years-after-busing/

Daugherity, B. J. (n.d.). Desegregation in Public Schools – Encyclopedia Virginia. Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/desegregation-in-public-schools/#:%7E:text=Desegregation%20began%20in%20Virginia%20on,in%20the%20spring%20of%201956

Citizen Research & Design. (n.d.). About The Company | Citizen Research & Design. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://web.archive.org/web/20110806102912/http://citizenrd.com/about

Citizen Research & Design. (n.d.-b). U.S. Census 2000 | Citizen Research & Design. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://web.archive.org/web/20111007192600/http://citizenrd.com/projects/us-census-2000

Gibson, D. (n.d.). Sylvia Harris | SEGD. SEGD. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://segd.org/sylvia-harris

Harris, S. (1996). What It Is? Searching for a Black Aesthetic in American Graphic Design. The International Review of African American Art, 13(1), 38–38.

Helfand, J. (11–07-25). Remembering Sylvia Harris. Design Observer. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://designobserver.com/feature/remembering-sylvia-harris/29118

House, L. (n.d.). Sylvia Harris Biography. AIGA. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://web.archive.org/web/20111004035114/http://www.aiga.org/design-journeys-sylvia-harris/

Two Twelve. (2014, May 14). Sylvia Harris Receives 2014 AIGA Medal - Voice - Two Twelve. Two Twelve Voice. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from http://www.twotwelve.com/voice/sylvia-harris-receives-2014-aiga-medal.html

There is a long history of racism behind famous brands, characters, and design that often goes unnoticed. Blatantly racist caricatures began with minstrel shows and the use of blackface, where white actors would use black makeup and overdrawn lips to depict Black people. These drove stereotypes that would be used in film, television, and branding. White actors depicted other minorities in an ill manner. From Mickey Rooney playing a Japanese man, Mr. Yunioshi, to Claudia Cardinale playing Indian Princess Dala, actors continued to manipulate their physical features to display the American audience’s ideas of these different ethnicities. Cartoons like Disney’s Peter Pan used Indigenous stereotypes for its character Tiger Lily and her tribe of Piccaninny, along with the song “What Makes the Red Man Red?” Big production companies such as Disney and Warner Bros. are guilty of distributing offensive caricatures that poorly reflect Black, Asian, Indigenous, and other ethnic groups. Brand mascots like Aunt Jemima were created to uphold the mammy stereotype, a Black woman who is subservient to white people and their children. She was meant to contain white anxieties about increasing the mobility of Black people within spaces of mass production and consumption post-emancipation. At this time other brand mascots like Rastus for Cream of Wheat and Uncle Ben’s Rice similarly demeaned Black men. Ethnic mascots are also very popular in sports, primarily mascots of Indigenous American men who are shown as savages. It’s only been since 2020 that brands have started to shift away from these racist images but the damage of BIPOC caricatures lingers.

1833 – One of the first examples of blackface, in Bowery Theatre, New York, Thomas Darmouth Rice played the caricature Jim Crow
1889 – Aunt Jemima brand was first introduced and featured mascot/character as a stereotype of a  mammy
1893 – Cream of Wheat launched using a mascot named Rastus,  a term used for Black men who were depicted as simple-minded
1904  – first US stage production of Peter Pan features white actress, Margaret Gordon as Tiger Lily 
1927 – posters of advertising performances of Joesphine Baker by Paul Colin: ‘La Revue Negre, feature racist stereotypes: Black figures with large red lips and overly sexualized depictions of Baker
1928 – Land O’Lakes butter premieres with a sexualized mascot/character of a Indegnous women called Mia
1935-36 – Shirley Temple appears in blackface and clothing which depict the ‘mammy’ caricature in The Littlest Rebel’ and dances on a stage with two men in blackface in ‘Dimples’
1940 – Tom and Jerry cartoon introduces a character named Mammy Two Shoes, a heavyset Black woman who was responsible for taking care of the house
1947 – Florida State adopted the name Seminoles 
1953 – Disney version of Peter Pan , the tribe of Piccaninny are designed to play the exotic and savage trope and performs the song, “What Makes the Red Man Red?”
1961 – white actor Mickey Rooney plays a Japanese man, Mr. Yunioshi, in Breakfast at Tiffany’s
1978 –  FSU Seminoles began a new tradition: At home football games a Seminole warrior would ride a horse onto the field, known as Chief Osceola and Renegade
2013– Daniel Synder, owner of the football team The Washington Redskins, vowed to never alter the name or imagery
2019 – the Cleveland Indians  and MLB made the decision to remove native caricature Chief Wahoo from their brand
2020 – Aunt Jemima is retires and the company rebrands to become Pearl Milling Company
2020 – B&G Foods announced they were removing the Rastus character from Cream of Wheat
2020 – during a rebrand Mia is removed from Land O’Lakes packaging
2020 – Washington Redskins announced name change and logo retirement

Walters, K. (n.d.). Blackface and Minstrelsy Tradition. BIPOC Design History. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://bipocdesignhistory.com/V1-overview

Carter, K. (2019). Confronting racial stereotypes in graphic design history. In J. Kaufmann-Butler,
V. Pass, & C. Wilson (Eds.), Design history beyond the canon. Bloomsbury.

Smith, C. J. (2013). The creolization of American culture : William Sidney Mount and the roots of blackface minstrelsy. University of Illinois Press.

Razack. (2016). Sexualized Violence and Colonialism: Reflections on the Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, 28(2), i–iv. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjwl.28.2.i

Luske, H., Geronimi, C. & Jackson, W. (Directors). (1953). Peter Pan [Film]. Walt Disney.

Elias-De Jesus, A. (2017, June 30). Jay Z’s New Music Video Uses America’s Long History of Racist Cartoons to Deliver a Haunting Message. Slate Magazine. https://slate.com/culture/2017/06/jay-zs-the-story-of-o-j-music-video-takes-on-racist-cartoons.html#:%7E:text=Jay%20Z’s%20New%20Music%20Video,to%20Deliver%20a%20Haunting%20Message&text=The%20video%20for%20%E2%80%9CThe%20Story,.%2C%20Disney%2C%20and%20others.

Jay-Z & Romanek, M. (Directors). (2017). The Story of OJ [Film]. Carter Enterprises. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RM7lw0Ovzq0&t=252s

Reappropriate. (2014, February 12). Remembering Shirley Temple requires us to remember her legacy of Blackface cinema. http://reappropriate.co/2014/02/remembering-shirley-temple-requires-us-to-remember-her-perpetuation-of-blackface-cinema/

Biography.com Editors. (2021, October 27). Bill “Bojangles” Robinson. Biography. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.biography.com/performer/bill-bojangles-robinson

MARRAKECH RIAD. (2017, December 4). Josephine Baker and La Revue Nègre | Marrakech Riad. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.marrakech-riad.co.uk/2017/12/josephine-baker-and-la-revue-negre/

Jolley, L. (2021, April 13). Josephine Baker. SHSMO Historic Missourians. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://historicmissourians.shsmo.org/josephine-baker

Jones, C. (2020, July 12). For faces behind Aunt Jemima, Uncle Ben’s and Cream of Wheat, life transcended stereotype. USA TODAY. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://eu.usatoday.com/story/money/2020/07/10/real-people-behind-aunt-jemima-uncle-ben-cream-of-wheat/3285054001/

Pearl Milling Co. (n.d.). Brand origins. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.pearlmillingcompany.com/our-history

Wu, K. J. (2020, April 28). Land O'Lakes Drops the Iconic Logo of an Indigenous Woman From Its Branding. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/mia-land-olakes-iconic-indigenous-woman-departs-packaging-mixed-reactions-180974760/

Shapira, I. (2016, May 19). A brief history of the word ‘redskin’ and how it became a source of controversy. Washington Post. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/a-brief-history-of-the-word-redskin-and-how-it-became-a-source-of-controversy/2016/05/19/062cd618-187f-11e6-9e16-2e5a123aac62_story.html

Laskow, S. (2014, December 2). The Racist History of Peter Pan's Indian Tribe. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/racist-history-peter-pan-indian-tribe-180953500/

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN LIBRARY. (n.d.). Great Native American Chiefs | Osceola · Online Exhibits. Retrieved June 16, 2022, from https://apps.lib.umich.edu/online-exhibits/exhibits/show/great-native-american-chiefs/group-of-native-american-chief/osceola

The birth of the Black newspaper in America took place in the form of abolitionist newspapers that spoke out against enslavement. These papers were an essential part of the Abolitionist movement in America, and many of them gave the Black community an important voice on issues that directly affected them and their communities. These newspapers spread Enlightenment-era ideas of equality and the rights of Black Americans and fought back against the negative and disparaging news that was regularly published about Black Americans in white-owned newspapers. Freedom’s Journal, The Liberator, The Colored American, and The North Star were all either operated and published by African American men or were supported by monetary contributions and printed regular articles from them. All of these newspapers built the momentum of the Abolitionist Movement and paved the way for the Civil Rights Movement to come. They were a vitally important way for Black people to speak out, circulate news and assistance to their communities, and change the way Black Americans were viewed.

1688  – the first known recorded anti-slavery incident, Quakers protested the act of slaveholding

1713-1773 –  America annually imports roughly 15,000 enslaved people

1714 – 59,000 enslaved persons in America

1758 – Abolitionist movement begins in America

1780-1789 – Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and New York outlaw slavery

1804 – every northern state had some form of emancipation in their legislation

1808 –  the import of enslaved persons were abolished in all states except South Carolina

1816 –  American Colonization Society (ACS )founded 

1827 – Freedom’s Journal founded, the first African American owned and operated newspaper in the USA

1831 – The Liberator founded by William Lloyd Garrison

1833 – the militant abolitionist group called the American Anti-Slavery Society is formed

1837 – Phillip A. Bell published the first issue of his weekly newspaper called “Weekly Advocate”, later renamed “The Colored American”

1842 – James Forten, financial backer and contributor to The Liberator, dies at age 75

1847-1851 – The North Star runs, founded by Fredrick Douglass

1850 – Fugitive Slave Act, made it possible to reclaim runaway formerly enslaved persons 

1865 – The Liberator ceases publication, ending with the ratification of the 13th amendment 

Abruzzo, M. (2011). Polemic Pain: Slavery, Cruelty, and the Rise of Humanitarianism. Johns Hopkins University Press. 

African American Newspapers Collection: Parts I-XIV. (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2022, from https://www.accessible-archives.com/. 

Bacon, J. (2007). Freedom's journal: The First African-American newspaper. Rowman & Littlefield. 

Barshad, A. (2019, Jan 21). Shaun King on relaunching the North Star newspaper. New York, Retrieved from https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/magazines/shaun-king-on-relaunching-north-star-newspaper/docview/2187591605/se-2?accountid=14516

BLUMBERG, B. (2004). Tammany Hall_._ In R. S. McElvaine (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Great Depression (Vol. 2, pp. 962-963). Macmillan Reference USA. 

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3404500506/GVRL?u=edmo56673&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=717af3c5

Burrowes, C. P. (2011). “Caught in the crosswinds of the Atlantic”. Journalism History, 37(3), 130-141. Retrieved from https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/caught-crosswinds-atlantic/docview/904647711/se-2?accountid=1451

Douglass, F. (1968). My Bondage and My Freedom. Arno Press & The New York Times. 

Douglass, F.. (1993). Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave. Bedford Books. 

Drescher, S. (2009). A_bolition a history of slavery and antislavery_. Cambridge University Press. 

Du Bois, W. E. B. (2007). The Supression of the African Slave-Trade. Oxford University Press. 

Fagan, B. (2011). "Americans as They Really Are": The "Colored American" and the Illustration of National Identity. American Periodicals, 21(2), 97–119. 

Fagan, B. (2014). “The North Star and the Atlantic 1848”. African American Review, 47(1), 51+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A675538942/LitRC?u=edmo56673&sid=bookmark-LitRC&xid=1170fb7f

Iaccarino, A. A. (2013). Garrison, William Lloyd 1805--1879. In P. L. Mason (Ed.), Encyclopedia of race and racism (2nd ed.). Gale. Credo Reference: https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/galerace/garrison_william_lloyd_1805_1879/0?institutionId=1845

Jackson, M. (2013). Abolition movement. In P. L. Mason (Ed.), Encyclopedia of race and racism (2nd ed.). Gale. Credo Reference: https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/galerace/abolition_movement/0?institutionId=1845

Klein, M. A. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Rowman & Littlefield. 

Magness, P. W., & Page, S. N. (2018). Colonization after emancipation: Lincoln and the Movement for Black Resettlement. University of Missouri Press. 

McClish, G. (2007). “A man of feeling, a man of color: James Forten and the rise of African American deliberative rhetoric”. Rhetorica, 25(3), 297–328. https://doi.org/10.1525/rh.2007.25.3.297

Newman, R. S. (2006). The transformation of American abolitionism: Fighting slavery in the Early Republic. Univ. of North Carolina Press. 

Oldfield, J.R. (2013). Transatlantic Abolitionism in the Age of Revolution. Cambridge University Press. 

Partin, E. (2011, January 4). FREEDOM’S JOURNAL (1827–1829). BLACKPAST. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/freedom-s-journal-1827-1829/

Public Broadcasting Service. (n.d.). Freedom's Journal. PBS. Retrieved January 4, 2022, from https://www.pbs.org/blackpress/news_bios/newbios/nwsppr/freedom/freedom.html

​​Reyes, D. (1999, Feb 25). Frederick Douglass and his historic north star. New York Amsterdam News Retrieved from https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/frederick-douglass-his-historic-north-star/docview/390315309/se-2?accountid=14516

Ripley, C. P. (1992). The Black Abolitionist Papers (Vol. 5). University of North Carolina Press. 

Upchurch, T. A. (2016). Abolition Movement. In S. Schechter, T. S. Vontz, T. A. Birkland, M. A. Graber, & J. J. Patrick (Eds.), American Governance (Vol. 1, pp. 1-4). Macmillan Reference USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3629100012/OVIC?u=edmo56673&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=058b5006

Washburn, P. S., & Page, C. (2006). The African American newspaper: Voice of Freedom. Northwestern University Press. 

Winch, J. (2013). Forten, James 1766--1842. In P. L. Mason (Ed.), Encyclopedia of race and racism (2nd ed.). Gale. Credo Reference: https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/galerace/forten_james_1766_1842/0?institutionId=1845

Winch, J. (2003). A gentleman of color: The life of James Forten. Oxford University Press. 

Winch, J. (2007). “The Making and Meaning of James Forten's Letters from a Man of Colour.” The William and Mary Quarterly, 64(1), 129–138. Retrieved January 4, 2022, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4491602.

This episode considers the 2016 proposal to place the likeness of Harriet Tubman on the U.S. $20 bill. The first use of paper money dates back to 1000 CE and has been cited as the first instance of widespread access to printed images. Money is an invented concept, it has value because societies collectively agree that it does, but historically images, symbols, and seals have been used to help authenticate money within the culture that it serves. Images of gods, monarchs and historical figures imbue the money with the magic of the gods or the authority of the government to assert its value. The US has a long history of printed money, dating back even before gaining independence. The images that a culture uses to assert the value of the country reflects what that country values. why then does the US continue to feature former presidents, and slave owners, white men of privilege, versus women and minorities? Harriet Tubman was a true hero in this country, who worked under the auspices of the underground railroad, and not only gained her own freedom, but also helped to free over 300 enslaved persons in her lifetime. In 2016, the proposal was made to put her image on the $20 bill. Making a change to the design of the US $20 bill, replacing Andrew Jackson’s likeness with that of Harriet Tubman would not right the wrongs of the past, but it would be a step towards honoring the contributions of Black women in this country, as well as a step forward in c_orrecting the absence of positive representations._

440 BC – The Greeks first use coin money, adopted the practice from the Lydians

1000 – The first paper money was issued in China

1690 – the first paper money was printed in the U.S. by the Massachusetts Bay colony, though U.S.A. is not yet a country

1775 – Second Continental Congress issues paper money to help fund the American Revolution

1821 – Harriet Tubman was born into slavery on a Maryland plantation

1844 – Harriet Tubman’s forced marriage to John Tubman

1831 – First recorded use of the phrase Underground Railroad

1913 – Harriet Tubman dies, buried in Auburn, New York with military honors

2016 – Proposal to replace Andrew Jackson with Harriet Tubman on the U.S. $20 bill, placed on hold during Trump presidency 

2021– President Biden announces plans to revisit Harriet Tubman $20 bill

2022 – plans are made to strike quarters  with historical female figures from U.S. History

99% Invisible. (2021, June 11). Episode 54 The Colour of Money. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://99percentinvisible.org/episode/episode-54-the-colour-of-money/

Andrews, E. (July 19 2017, updated: September 3, 2019). How many U.S. Presidents owned enslaved People? History.com 

https://www.history.com/news/how-many-u-s-presidents-owned-slaves

Ann, M. S. (2021). Harriet Tubman. Harriet Tubman, 1–N.PAG. 

Biography.com Editors. (2014, April 2). Harriet Tubman. The Biography.Com Website. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://www.biography.com/activist/harriet-tubman

Blakemore, E. (April 30, 2018, updated: August 29, 2018). Why Andrew Jackson’s Legacy Is So Controversial. History.com

https://www.history.com/news/andrew-jackson-presidency-controversial-legacy

Bradford, S. (1886). Harriet, the Moses of Her People. New York, Geo. R. Lockwood & Son.

Due North Productions (Producer), & Robertson, L. (Director). (2016). Daughters of the New Republic: Harriet Tubman and Sarah Bradford. [Video/DVD] Due North Productions. https://video.alexanderstreet.com/watch/daughters-of-the-new-republic-harriet-tubman-and-sarah-bradford

Fleming, C. (2018). How To be Less Stupid About Race. Beacon Press. Boston Massachusetts. 

Gleim, S. (April 1, 2021). What do the Symbols on the U.S. $1 bill Mean? Howstuworks.com. https://money.howstuffworks.com/symbols-dollar-bill.htm

Grundhauser, E. (April 22, 2016) The ornate Charm of American Currency from the 1700s. Atlasobscura.com

https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-ornate-charm-of-american-currency-from-the-1700s

Hannah-Jones, N. (2021). The 1619 Project. New York. One World

History.com Editors. (2022, January 25). Underground Railroad. HISTORY. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/underground-railroad

History.com Editors. (2021, November 16). Quakers. HISTORY. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/history-of-quakerism

Klein, C. (July 8, 2020, updated: October 16, 2020). Alexander Hamilton’s Complicated relationship to Slavery. History.com. https://www.history.com/news/alexander-hamilton-slavery-facts

Laliberte, M.  (July 26, 2021). What Those Symbols on the Dollar Bill actually mean. Reader’s Digest.com https://www.rd.com/list/dollar-bill-symbols/

Landis, M. (September 9, 2015). A Proposal To Change The Words We Use When Talking About The Civil War. Smithsonian Magazine.com. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/proposal-change-vocabulary-we-use-when-talking-about-civil-war-180956547/

Musgrave, P. (2021, February 9). Take the Presidents Off the U.S. Dollar. Foreign Policy. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/02/09/america-currency-outdated-tubman-jackson/

Pruitt, S.  (September 21, 2012, updated: June 23, 2020). 5 Things you may not know about Abraham Lincoln, Slavery and Emancipation. History.com

https://www.history.com/news/5-things-you-may-not-know-about-lincoln-slavery-and-emancipation

Smith, R. (2012, April 4). Redesigning Dollar Bills, and the American Brand - NYTimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/04/04/bringing-dollars-and-cents-into-this-century/redesigning-dollar-bills-and-the-american-brand

Weatherford, J. (1997). The History of Money. New York, Three Rivers Press.

Angel De Cora was an artist, illustrator, and educator from the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska. Around the age of 14, she was enrolled in the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute as a part of the U.S. Government’s cultural assimilation program for Indigenous American youth. While at Hampton, she found her love for art. She went on to study under notable artists such as Dwight W. Tryon at Smith College and Howard Pyle at Drexel Institute. De Cora was later featured in Harper’s Monthly Magazine when she wrote and illustrated the semi-autobiographical tales “The Sick Child” and “Gray Wolf’s Daughter.” She was published under her Thunderbird clan name, “Henook-makhewe-kelenaka.” From here, she continued to produce paintings and illustrations and began designing book covers that displayed Native American motifs and the Arts and Crafts style. In the Spring of 1905, she was hired to do the artwork for a chapter in The Indian’s Book by Natalie Curtis. But after designing a cover page for her chapter, the publishers requested she makes cover pages for the other eighteen chapters. De Cora took a job at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania and established the Native Indian Art Department and later played a part in the publication of ‘The Indian Craftsman’, Carlisle’s monthly magazine. She was known as a “Red Progressive” who advocated for Indian education and helped found the Society of American Indians, a pan-Indian progressive group dedicated to uplifting Native peoples.

1868 or 1869 – b Angel De Cora, born in Thurston, Nebraska, on Ho-chunk (traditionally Winnebago) reservation land
1883 – Angel Decora was forced to go to Virginia to attend the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute
1891 – Graduated from Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute
1896 – was the first Native American to graduate from Smith College
1898 – Spends summer studying with Howard Pyle at his renown Brandywine Illustration school
1900 – painted for the cover of Franci La Flesch’s The Middle Five: Indian Boys at School.
1901 – created several illustrations for Old Indian Legends by Gertrude Bonnin aka Zitkala-Sa as well as Wigwam Stories for Mary Catherine Judd.
1906 – Takes a job as an art instructor at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania
1907 – created several illustrations for ethnomusicologist Curtis’ project, The Indian’s Book
1907 – Elopes with William H. Dietz, a Sioux Indian, also known as “Lone Star”
1909 – begins working on the publication of Carlisle’s monthly magazine, The Indian Craftsman
1911 – De Cora helped found the Society of American Indians
1915 – De Cora resigns from Carlisle
1919 – D Angel De Cora dies from the flu during the Spanish Flu epidemic

Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center. (n.d.). Dietz, Angel DeCora. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/people/dietz-angel-decora

Dragicevic, M. (n.d.). Angel De Cora. THE HISTORY OF PAINTING REVISITED. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://thehistoryofpaintingrevisited.weebly.com/angel-de-cora.html

Fay, E. (2021, March 1). Angel De Cora: Indigenous American and Pyle Student | Brandywine Conservancy and Museum of Art. Brandywine River Museum of Art. https://www.brandywine.org/museum/blog/angel-de-cora-indigenous-american-and-pyle-student

Gere, A. R. (2004). An Art of Survivance: Angel DeCora at Carlisle. American Indian Quarterly, 28(3/4), 649–684. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4138937

Kelly, M. (2018, March 9). Finding Angel de Cora. The Consecrated Eminence. https://consecratedeminence.wordpress.com/2018/03/09/finding-angel-de-cora/

McAnulty, S. (2010, November 20). Angel DeCora: American Artist and Educator; article by Sarah McAnulty. Traditional Fine Arts Organization. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://tfaoi.org/aa/4aa/4aa27.htm

Southall, N. (n.d.). AIGA Design Journeys: Angel DeCora – The Native Graphic Design Project. The Native Graphic Design Project. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://www.neebin.com/nativedesign/?p=426

Tiger, Y. (n.d.). Rediscovering Native American Illustrator and Designer Angel De Cora – Society of Illustrators. Society of Illustrators. Retrieved June 14, 2022, from https://societyillustrators.org/event/angeldecora/

Waggoner, L. (2008). Fire Light: the life of Angel De Cora, Winnebago artist. University of Oklahoma Press.

Waggoner, L. (2021). “Her Greatest Work Lay in Decorative Design”: Angel DeCora Ho-Chunk Artist (1869–1919). In B. Levit (Ed.), Baseline Shift: Untold stories of women in graphic design history (pp. 12–31). Princeton Architectural Press.

John H. Johnson was the man driving the publishing empire that included Ebony, Jet, Tan, and Ebony Jr. Black-owned abolitionist newspapers certainly predated all of Johnson’s publications, however, Ebony was the first mainstream news and culture magazine by and for Black Americans. Much like its predecessors, Johnson’s magazines pushed back against the negative images and stereotypes of Black Americans found in many other papers and magazines. Ebony was inspired by LIFE magazine and printed stories of the “happier side of Negro life.” Ebony, as with all of Johnson’s other titles, fostered a sense of community and was popular enough that Johnson was able to attract white advertisers. It chronicled the Civil Rights movement and for that reason alone makes it an important historical record of the times. Johnson was always looking for gaps in the market that his publications could fill and he launched several titles addressing those gaps. Ebony Jr. was for Black children. Tan focused on love and romance. Jet was a pocket-sized weekly news magazine. However, one market Johnson never addressed was the Black gay community. Taking a page out of Johnson’s book, designer Alan Bell launched BLK magazine, which started as a 16-page black & white monthly paper and grew to a full-color publication of up to 40 pages. BLK featured interviews with celebrities and up-to-date information about safe sex and HIV/AIDS. Both Johnson and Bell provided a place for African American voices to speak their truths and record their own histories.

1870 – 15th Amendment gave Black Men the right to vote
1896  – Plessy v. Ferguson “separate but equal” ruling
1918  – John H. Johnston was Born Jan. 19 in Arkansas City, AR
1933  –  Johnson and his mother moved to Chicago, Illinois
1936  –  Johnson graduated with honors from DuSable 
1936  –  Johnson met Harry H. Pace, president of Supreme Life Insurance Company
1936  –  Johnson enrolled at the University of Chicago, and started job as in house assistant for Supreme Liberty Guardian
1942  – Johnson crowdfunded Negro World Digest at 24 years old
1945  – First issue of Ebony magazine published
1947  – Circulation for Ebony magazine grew to 300,000
1948  –  Ad Space in Ebony magazine was at 48 pages with major advertisers
1950  – Tan magazine founded
1953 -54  – Copper Romance magazine start & end
1953  –  HUE magazine began publication
1957-58  – Martin Luther King Jrs column ran in Ebony magazine
1959  – HUE magazine ceased publication
1963 – Woolworth Counter Protests
1964 – Civil Rights Act of 1964 Passed; guaranteed right to equal employment, limited literacy tests at polling places, enforced public desegregation
1970  – Negro World came back under the title Black World
1972  – JET magazine founded
1971  – Tan magazine re-named Black Stars
1973 – Ebony Jr! Founded
1976 – Black World ceased publication
1977-79 – Alan Bell worked for Gaysweek magazine in NYC
1985 – Ebony Jr! ceased publication
1988 – BLK magazine was founded by Alan Bell 
1994 – BLK magazine ceased publication
1996  –  Johnson received the Lifetime Achievement Award from American Advertising Foundation
2003 – Johnson inducted into the American Advertising Hall of Fame 
2003  – Howard University renamed the School of Communications to the John H. Johnson School of Communications 
2007  – Ebony Jr! went online for one year
2013  – Bell was inducted into the Gay Men Hall of fame of National AIDS Educations
2019  – BLK magazine archive digitized at Chicago’s DuSable Museum 

Alan Bell. (2021, April 1). NAESM, Inc. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https://naesminc.org/hall-of-fame/alan-bell/. 

Behance. (n.d.). Biography of Herbert temple. Behance. Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://www.behance.net/gallery/109799419/Biography-of-Herbert-Temple?tracking\_source=search\_projects\_published\_date%7CPierre-Hugues+Herbert. 

Bernu, C. (2019). “BLK Issues: Preserving BLK Magazine in the DuSable Museum of African American History Archives”. American Quarterly, 71(2), 307–403. 

Borrelli, C. (2021, February 16). “Ebony's history in 6 covers”. Chicago Tribune, pp. 1–1. 

Bowean, L. (2011, Apr 27). HERBERT TEMPLE: 1919-2011: LONGTIME ART DIRECTOR GUIDED EBONY, JET MAGAZINES. Chicago Tribune Retrieved from https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/herbert-temple-1919-2011/docview/863523424/se-2?accountid=14516

Campbell, A. (2019). Queer X Design: 50 years of signs, symbols, banners, logos, and graphic art of Lgbtq. Black Dog et Leventhal Publishers. 

Christian, M. A., Enterprise, B., & Tillery, A. (2016, August 4). John H. Johnson. EBONY. Retrieved September 10, 2021, from https://www.ebony.com/black-history/john-h-johnson/. 

Entrepreneur. (2015, August 17). John H. Johnson. Entrepreneur. Retrieved September 12, 2021, from https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/197650. 

Gallon, K. T. (2020). Pleasure in the news: African American readership and sexuality in the Black Press. University of Illinois Press. 

Henderson, L. (2008). Ebony Jr!: The rise, fall, and return of a black children's magazine. Scarecrow Press. 

Herbert Temple. Herbert Temple | The Chicago Design Archive. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https://chicagodesignarchive.org/designer/herbert-temple. 

Horne, G. (2017). Rise and fall of the associated negro press Claude Barnett's Pan-African News and the Jim Crow paradox. University of Illinois Press. 

Jones, A. (2018, February 16). Lerone Bennett Jr., 89, former Ebony editor. The Philadelphia Tribune, p. 16. 

Knupfer, A. M. (2000). African-AMerican Designers: The Chicago Experience Then and Now . Design Issues, 16(3). Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1511818. 

​​Lavette, L., Ciara, Diddy, Common, Simmons, K. L., Wade, D., Union, G., & Williams, V. (2021). Ebony: Covering black america. Rizzoli. 

Leekley, D. (1985, 08). Magazines for kids. Parents, 60, 138. Retrieved from https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/magazines/magazines-kids/docview/1898983131/se-2?accountid=14516

Munro, S. (n.d.). BLK Magazine and Black Jack Newsletter. Arena. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https://www.are.na/silas-munro/blk-magazine-and-black-jack-newsletter. 

ONE Archives Foundation. (2019, May 24). Writing while BLK: A conversation on the history of Blk. ONE Archives Foundation. Retrieved September 13, 2021, from https://www.onearchives.org/writing-while-blk/. 

Palmer, C. A., & Robinson, G. (2006). Ebony. In Encyclopedia of African American culture and history: The black experience in the Americas (2nd ed.). Thomson Gale. 

Robert Newman. Robert Newman RSS. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from http://www.robertnewman.com/black-history-magazines-ebony-jr/. 

Robert Newman. Robert Newman RSS. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2021, from http://www.robertnewman.com/the-best-of-black-history-month-magazines/. 

Robinson, G. (2006). Ebony. In C. A. Palmer (Ed.), Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History (2nd ed., Vol. 2, p. 672). Macmillan Reference USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3444700410/GVRL?u=edmo56673&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=b78f82d6

West, E. J. (2017). Lerone Bennett, jr.: A life in popular black history. The Black Scholar, 47(4), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.2017.1368063

West, E. J. (2020). Ebony Magazine and Lerone Bennett Jr.: Popular black history in postwar America. University of Illinois Press.

There are not a lot of definitive details known about the life of Sequoyah and what information we do have is often conflicting, like was his anglicized name George Guess or George Gist? Did he possibly go by both? Sequoyah has been called an enigmatic figure and a genius because despite all unknowns about his life, what most historians can and do agree on is that he is the sole creator of the Cherokee Alphabet. The alphabet is more accurately called a syllabary, and Sequoyah is the only figure recorded in history to develop a written language all on his own. The development of the syllabary, containing 85 symbols, was a tremendous feat, especially considering Sequoyah had previously been illiterate. The impact of this invention to the Cherokee people was great indeed as history reports that the syllabary was incredibly easy to learn and that after just a few days of instruction Cherokee people were able to begin communicating with each other through letters. It is through the development of this written language that many Cherokee were able to resist removal for as long as they did. It enabled the Cherokee to begin printing their own newspaper, The Cherokee Phoenix, but it had unforeseen circumstances as well. Christian missionaries were able to use this written language to convert the Cherokee to Christianity. The development of the Cherokee written language is more broadly significant as part of the history of visual communication. Even though most western histories focus on the development of the Latin alphabet, the syllabary is seminal to the history of graphic design.

1766(?) – Sequoyah is born (dates disputed)

1821 – the invention of a Cherokee alphabet by Sequoyah (dates disputed) 

1827 – he first document printed in the Cherokee language, a translation of the first five verses of the book of Genesis

1828 – Charles Bird King completes his painting of Sequoyah

1828 – The Cherokee Phoenix is founded by Elias Boudinot and Samuel Worcester as a newspaper for the Cherokee Nation

1830s – Cherokee Phoenix to editorialize against the Indian Removal act by Cherokee Nation leaders, such as Chief John Ross and editor Elias Boudinot

1834 – The Cherokee Phoenix seized by the Georgia military

1843 – Sequoyah Dies

1844 – Cherokee Nation newspaper is restarted in Indian Territory (Tahlequah, Oklahoma), now called the Cherokee Advocate.

2007 – The Cherokee Phoenix was restarts as an online newspaper

Bender, M. C. (2002). Signs of Cherokee culture Sequoyah's syllabary in Eastern Cherokee life. University of North Carolina Press.

Bird, T. (1971). Tell Them They Lie: The Sequoyah Myth. Westernlore Press.

Cherokee Phoenix. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from https://www.cherokeephoenix.org/site/about.html

Dasylva, A. O. (2006). 'Culture Education' and the Challenge of Globalization in Modern Nigeria. Oral Tradition, 21(2), 325–341.

Doskey, A. V., & Bannon, F. (2014). Cherokee Phoenix: The Birth and Revival of Cherokee Language Printing in the Southeast. In J. Brock, M. Harper, T. B. Reeves, K. Tepper, & J. Newberry (Eds.), Excerpts (pp. 56-68). Zuckerman Museum of Art. http://juliabrock.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/ZMA-Excerpts-catalogue-X.pdf

Fortier, J. (Director). (2021). Searching for Sequoyah [Film]. Turtle Island Productions.

Hoig, S. (1995). Sequoyah : the Cherokee genius. Oklahoma Historical Society: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. 

Kalter, S. (2001). 'America's Histories' Revisited: The Case of Tell Them They Lie. American Indian Quarterly, 25(3), 329.

Leavy, P. (2011). Oral History : Understanding Qualitative Research, Oxford University Press.

Malone, H. T. (1972). Traveller Bird. "Tell Them They Lie: The Sequoyah Myth" (Book Review) [Review of Traveller Bird. "Tell Them They Lie: The Sequoyah Myth" (Book Review)_]. _Western Historical Quarterly, 3(4), 437. Utah State University.

Neuman, Lisa K.. Indian Play : Indigenous Identities at Bacone College, Nebraska, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ucok-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1543723.

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Sequoyah. (2018). In P. Lagasse, & Columbia University, The Columbia encyclopedia (8th ed.). Columbia University Press. Credo Reference: https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/columency/sequoyah/0?institutionId=1845

Sequoyah. (2017). In Encyclopaedia Britannica, Britannica concise encyclopedia. Britannica Digital Learning. Credo Reference: https://libproxy.uco.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/ebconcise/sequoyah/0?institutionId=1845

Simek, J. F., Carroll, B. D., Reed, J., Cressler, A., Belt, T., Adams, W., & White, M. (2019). The Red Bird River Shelter (15CY52) Revisited: The Archaeology of the Cherokee Syllabary and of Sequoyah in Kentucky. American Antiquity, 84(2), 302–316. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2018.8

Simek, J. F., Carroll, B. D., Reed, J., Cressler, A., Belt, T., Adams, W., & White, M. (2020). There Is No Cherokee Syllabary at Red Bird River Shelter (15CY52): Reply to Tankersley and Weeks. American Antiquity, 85(2), 388–391. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2020.5

Syropoulos, A. (2002). Typesetting Native American Languages. The Journal of Electronic Publishing, 8(1). https://quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jep/3336451.0008.105/--typesetting-native-american-languages?rgn=main;view=fulltext

Tankersley, K. B., & Weeks, W. R. (2020). Red Bird and Sequoyah: A Reply to Simek et al. American Antiquity, 85(2), 383–387. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2020.4

Trimbur, J., & Goody, J. (1982). The Domestication of the Savage Mind [Review of The Domestication of the Savage Mind_]. _College Composition and Communication, 33(4), 461–463. National Council of Teachers of English. https://doi.org/10.2307/357966

Thane, P. M. (1999). Oral History, Memory and Written Tradition: An Introduction. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 9, 161–168. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3679397

Weeks, R., & Tankersley, K. (2011). Talking leaves and rocks that teach: the archaeological discovery of Sequoyah's oldest written record. Antiquity, 85(329), 978–576. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00068435