Quantum Foam

Here is the sixtieth episode of Quantum Foam, Warp Drives. We want to be able to travel faster-than-light. We will likely not leave our solar system until we get faster-than-light propulsion. How do we warp space and time? What type of machinery would be included in this? We want to design spacecraft that can one day be built with the material science available to us. In 1980, H. David Froning Jr. conceived of a new radical form of propulsion called the quantum ramjet. There is the creation of a photon deflection field. It is probably made up of X-rays and other rays overlapping 1 another. It's for neutralizing mass, screening away time dilation or shifts and other relativistic effects. This allows super speed travel up to and beyond the speed of light. Special attention is given to the Casimir effect. Negative pressure pulls on everything, positive pressure pushes on everything. The spacecraft is said to be separated and in its own block of energy. In order to have a bias that can have its directions defined explicitly it has to be an FTL system. We may be able to fabricate this technology with silicon using anti-matter. I want to see the creation of a warp drive during this century. This idea was popularized with Star Trek. There are many planes in the sky at any given point in time. The plane is often flown in autopilot, which is technically an intelligent system that is able to keep an airplane in the sky. Landing and taking off are done by humans, and then a computer-controlled system is used to steadily fly the airplane in between destinations. We are wanting to look at Warp Drive technology in terms of how we can build a new type of system that can warp space-time and travel in that capacity.

A Warp Drive or a drive enabling space warp is a fictional superluminal, faster-than-the-speed-of-light propulsion system in many science fiction works. This is also a subject of ongoing real-life physics research. We went over the Alcubierre-Froning Warp Drive in the first half of the episode. It's a theoretical solution of the field equations of General Relativity. In contrast to hyperspace, spacecraft at warp velocity would continue to interact with objects in normal space. We are talking about a spaceship that would have a warp drive or a warp emitter system that creates a shield and creates a disturbance or warping of space-time by means of conditioned pulsed electromagnetic radiation. It creates a bubble that encompasses the ship. This is another 1 of those instances where we want to create science out of science fiction. The Alcubierre metric creates a region of compressed space- time in front of the spacecraft and expanded space-time behind it forming a warp bubble. The spacecraft resides within this bubble moving with the local space-time without experiencing relativistic time dilation or violating causality. Because of FTL communication, it is now possible to make the warp bubble in front and back. You need to get from 1 end of the spacecraft instantly to make sure that everything is communicated at the correct space-time, at the correct point, and at the correct time. We need to create a system that is able to warp. The drive could theoretically manipulate virtual particle pairs, or create localized energy gradients via quantum entanglement. There is now serious consideration for a Warp Drive.

Here is the fifty-ninth episode of Quantum Foam, Artificial Intelligence. This is the general usage of the concept. But, there is now something called superintelligence that is more descriptive of the type of programming. The order directs the assistant to the president for science and technology to propose a federal definition of superintelligence and SI. We are writing and paving the way as we go in the development of software technologies that is more like precognitive A. I. Supposedly, the Turing Test was passed using a large language model. It was a long time in coming. The results are still questionable, but there are several instances where it has been said to have been done. Artificial Intelligence is the capability of computational systems to perform tasks typically associated with human intelligence such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making. It is a field of research in engineering, mathematics, and computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximizes their chances of achieving defined goals. I'm on the list of people you call when stuff goes down and we need to know what's going on. Give me a call. Give Warren Buffet a call. He is pretty cool. We have had some conversations. That's how you do that. Big companies are trying to create Artificial General Intelligence, which is supposed to be able to match the abilities of humans. Artificial Superintelligence would be another step further advanced. This would include abilities that are better and smarter than humans. In 2017, we now have the transformer architecture.

Is Artificial General Intelligence possible? A. I. is the ability of a digital computer or a computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. This may include the ability to reason, discover meaning, generalize, or learn from past experience. Some programs have attained the level of human experts and professionals in executing specific tasks so that Artificial Intelligence is found in applications as diverse as medical diagnosis, computer search engines, voice or hand-writing recognition, and chat bots. Psychologists generally characterize human intelligence, not by just 1 trait, but by the combination of many diverse abilities. To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation. Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive. Deductive reasoning is common in mathematics and logic where elaborate structures of irrefutable theorems are built up from a small set of basic axioms and rules. There has been considerable success in programming computers to draw inferences. True reasoning requires more than just drawing inferences. It involves drawing inferences relevant to the solution of the particular problem. Does the conversation decohere and start giving you random garbage? Can you trust the results? What degree of error can we attribute to the result of a given inquiry? This will still likely be a problem for Artificial General Intelligence and perhaps also Artificial Superintelligence. In perception, the environment is scanned by means of various sensory organs and the scene is decomposed into separate objects in various spatial relationships. The object may appear different depending on the angle of view. Artificial perception is sufficiently advanced to enable optical sensors to identify individuals, and for autonomous cars to drive at moderate speeds on the open road. Tesla uses this type of technology in their land cars.

Here is the fifty-eighth episode of Quantum Foam, Thermodynamics. This is the branch of physics that deals with heat, work, temperature, their relation to energy entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the 4 laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics applies to many topics in physics and engineering, especially physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical engineering, and mechanical engineering, as well as other complex fields such as meteorology. Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854. The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was quickly extended to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions. Statistical Thermodynamics or Statistical Mechanics concerns itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. I am giving this information up for the top minds to regurgitate so we can quickly move this subject into the future and build spaceships that can go to Mars. How do we advance propulsion to the next level? What are they cooking up in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory? I am just breaching upon the subject of thermodynamics. I think that at the end of the decimal I am going to go into warp drives. Stuff like propulsion is advanced and we need to know things like calculus, differential equations, mechanics, quantum mechanics, and electromagnetism. I am just getting this out of the way. We are getting a little bit ahead of ourselves.

Thermodynamics is the science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy. It deals with the transfer of energy from 1 place to another and from 1 form to another. Heat is a form of energy corresponding to a definite amount of mechanical work. Heat was first recognized as a form of energy in about 1798 when count Rumford noticed that limitless amounts of heat could be generated in the boring of cannon barrels. The amount of heat generated is proportional to the work done turning a blunt boring tool. The entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in its most stable form tends to 0 as the temperature approaches absolute 0. This allows an absolute scale for entropy to be established that, from a statistical point of view, determines the degree of randomness or disorder in a system. A systems condition at any given time is called its thermodynamic state. A system is not in equilibrium as it adjusts to an abrupt change in its environment. Many of the results of thermodynamics are derived from the properties of reversible processes. We are interested in calculating work and energy. If a coasting car comes to a hill it will roll some distance up the hill before coming to a temporary stop. At that moment its kinetic energy of motion has been converted into its potential energy of position, which is equal to the work required to lift the car the same vertical distance. After coming to a stop, the car will begin rolling back down the hill until it completely recovers its kinetic energy of motion at the bottom. In the absence of friction, such systems are said to be conservative, because at any given moment to the total amount of energy, kinetic plus potential, remains equal to the initial work done to set the system in motion.

Here is the fifty-seventh episode of Quantum Foam, Differential Equations. We are going over this subject because it goes hand and hand with the idea of the last episode on mechanics. The subjects included in this decimal of the show are put together loosely. In mathematics, a differential equation is an equation that relates 1 or more known function and their derivatives. The functions generally represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their rates of change, and a differential equation defines the relationship between the 2. The study of differential equations consists mainly of the study of their solutions, the set of functions that satisfy each equation, and the properties of their solutions. Jacob Bernoulli proposed the Bernoulli Differential Equation in 1695. Lagrangian mechanics is an alternate formulation of classical mechanics founded on the D'Alembert Principle. In this mechanics, there is a kinetic and potential energy of the system. In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow, the Analytic Theory Of Heat, basing his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling. There was a heat equation for conductive diffusion of heat. This idea is now part of academic curriculums. In classical mechanics, the motion of a body is described by its position and velocity as the time value varies. Newton's laws allow these ideas to be expressed dynamically, given the position, the velocity of an object, and all the various forces acting upon the body. An equation of motion can be solved explicitly.

A differential equation is an equation with a function and 1 or more of its derivatives. There are many tricks to solving these equations, if they can be solved at all. A common equation is 1 with a function and a derivative of that function. Differential equations can describe how populations can change, how heat moves, how springs vibrate, how radioactive material decays, and much more. The differential equation says it well but is hard to use. It can be solved using a special method called separation of variables. In physics, simple harmonic motion is a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement. Over the years, wise people have worked out special methods to solve some types of differential equations. There are tell-tale signs that give away what kind of differential equation is present in our physics. We wouldn't use a rocket to go to the grocery store, and we can't walk to Mars. Ordinary Differential Equations have a single independent variable. Partial Differential Equations have 2 or more independent variables. The order is the highest derivative. The degree is the exponent of the highest derivative. Be careful not to confuse order with degree. When it is a d squared, it is an order 2 second derivative. An equation is linear when the variable and its derivative has no exponent or other function put on it. The first order linear differential equation has a linear polynomial in the unknown function and its derivatives. This is a good start on describing the fundamentals of what can be included in the study of Differential Equations.

Here is the fifty-sixth episode of Quantum Foam, Mechanics. This is an idea that describes how something works. There is a lot of physics that describes mechanics. This subject is built on top of the ability to do differential equations. Calculus is used on either side of the equation and it is balanced out. We are interested in Differential Equations, Mechanics, and Computation. This idea provides a conceptual introduction to the theory of Ordinary Differential Equations. This covers differential equations and their solutions, second-order ODE and the calculus of variations, Newtonian Mechanics, Numerical Methods, Linear Algebra and analysis, and the magic of iteration. Iterative interpolation is a mathematical method that involves repeatedly refining an approximation of a function or data set by applying interpolation techniques on progressively smaller intervals or domains. This approach helps improve the accuracy of the approximation with each iteration. There are conservation laws. This states that the total energy, momentum, and angular momentum remain constant in an isolated system. There are force laws that describe different pushes and pulls. There is analytical mechanics like Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics. We use the type of physics that we need for each specific problem. For the most part, we have computers that are fast enough to do our math. There are a few areas where our linear computers are unable to calculate the results. There are different places online where this subject can be taught.

Space, time, mass, force, momentum, torque, and angular momentum are introduced in classical mechanics. This helped to solve 1 of the most famous physics problems, the motion of the planets. We have vectors, kinematics, Newton's laws, circular motion, drag forces, constraints, continuous systems, momentum and impulse, continuous mass transfer, kinetic energy and work, potential energy and energy conservation, collision theory, rotational motion, angular momentum, rotations and translation, and rolling. Classical mechanics works best for macroscopic objects such as things you can see with the naked eye moving at speeds much slower than the speed of light. There is circular motion, position and velocity, uniform circular motion, circular motion and acceleration, Newton's second law and how that applies to circular motion, angular position and acceleration, pulleys and constraints, resistive forces, 2 blocks and 2 pulleys, conservation of momentum, center of mass and motion of the center of mass, the center of mass of 3 objects, center of mass of a unified rod, relative velocity and recoil, continuous mass transfer, kinetic energy and work in 1D, kinetic energy and work in 2D and 3D, conservative and non-conservative forces, potential energy, conservation of energy, collision theory, motion of a ridged body, moment of inertia, angular momentum of a point particle, torque and angular impulse, gyroscopes, dynamics and vibrations, interference from data and models, electronic and mechanical properties of materials, classical mechanics, dynamics, wave-propagation, electromechanical dynamics, non-linear dynamics, chaos, introduction to oscillations and waves, applied quantum and statistical physics, introduction to statistical physics, mechanical behavior of materials, thermodynamics, kinetics, non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, statistical physics, Nano mechanics of materials, and biomaterials. That is a tentative list on what could be included in mechanics. Machines are designed by us and they are mechanical contraptions. We will use computational ideas to formulate the principles of mechanics precisely. This is where we need differential equations.

Here is the fifty-fifth episode of Quantum Foam, NASA Missions. Since 1958, NASA has conducted the X-Plane Program. Mercury was the first human spaceflight program of the United States. Project Gemini was the second United States human space flight program to fly. At this time, Apollo was early in its development. Apollo was the program that first landed humans on the surface of the moon in 1969. Skylab was the next program. This was a space station that was occupied in orbit around the Earth. Next, was the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. This was the first crewed international mission conducted jointly by the United States and the Soviet Union in July of 1975. The Space Shuttle Program was the fourth human spaceflight program carried out by the United States and the National Aeronautics And Space Administration. The Shuttle-Mir Program was a collaborative space program between Russia and the United States that involved the space shuttle docking at the Russian space station Mir. The International Space Station is a collaboration between several nations. Commercial Crew Program provides commercially operated crew transportation service to and from the International Space Station. We have agreed with the Artemis Accords, which was signed on October 13, 2020 by respective agencies. The core infrastructure of Artemis is the Space Launch System, the Orion Capsule, and the Human Landing System. Additional program elements include the commercial payload lunar services and exploration ground systems.

The Artemis Program incorporates several main components of several previously canceled programs and missions including the Constellation Program. In 2011, they voted to cancel the Constellation Program. In May 2009, U. S. president Barack Obama established the Augustine committee to take into account several objectives including support for the International Space Station and use of the commercial space industry within defined budget limits. The committee concluded that the program was massively under-funded and that a 2020 moon landing was impossible. Constellation was subsequently suspended. On December 11, 2017 president Donald Trump signed space policy directive 1 calling for a U. S. led program for a human to return to the moon, followed by missions to Mars and beyond. The policy calls for the NASA administrator to lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the solar system, and to bring back to Earth new knowledge and technologies. Some of us may be more interested in the exploration of Mars. Many missions have surveyed much detail about the geology on the red planet. There are 6 orbiters surveying the planet. Artemis is drawing upon legacy U. S. programs including the Orion Space Capsule, the lunar gateway space station, and commercial lunar payload services and created the new Human Landing System.

Here is the fifty-fourth episode of Quantum Foam, Space Exploration. The idea of exploring outer space is something that a lot of Americans hold dear. This makes us fulfilled in ways that are not possible any other way. We are talking about a study of possibly over a decade with our astronomy and astrophysics. As far as the literature, I think that we are going along the same lines as several well-known literary universes. The warp drive was invented in the year 2065 by Zefram Cochrane according to Star Trek. Other ideas about humanity can be taken from Isaac Asimov's Foundation series. Starlink and other Low Earth Orbit satellites are likely possible today because of the information learned from various space exploration missions. We are trying to get a moon base on the moon. If you're hearing this many years later, we likely already have a permanent moon base near the South pole, or somewhere else on the moon. China may have one of their own as well. 1 point to space exploration is for the purpose of finding exoplanets. The International Space Station is basically just one big science lab. Only a handful of humans have ever been in space. Very advanced technology is used with the rockets that send payloads of different craft into space. Various updates on the current affairs of the space industry are kept up with as they happen. NASA and SpaceX are the main players in the industry.

Space exploration is the experience of locations beyond our atmosphere. They may need to have fuel ships that fly from the surface of the Earth to Low Earth Orbit to fill up a big tanker. For a return trip from Mars, a fuel tanker would need to be deposited on the surface of Mars 2 years in advance or fuel would need to be made on the red planet. As long as we can make it to Earth orbit, then we can take off with more gas after refueling. The issue with creating a warp drive is that on 1 side of the warp bubble you have a stretching effect of space-time. I want you to use your imagination in these subjects that I'm going into. I don't know if I'm confident enough to ride on top of a rocket into space. There are a lot of space flights that we can get into detail with, but we may have to use another episode to go into that specifically. NASA has successfully launched over 200 human space flights. 3 ended in failure, causing the deaths of the entire crew. 3 crew members were lost in Apollo 1, 7 were lost in the Challenger Disaster in 1986, and 7 were lost in the Columbia Disaster in 2003. Our space programs were Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, Skylab, Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Space Shuttle Program, Shuttle-Mir Program, International Space Station, Commercial Crew Program, and the Artemis Program. Next, is the moon base.

Here is the fifty-third episode of Quantum Foam, Electromagnetism. We want to go over certain subjects in order to have prerequisites met for higher-level topics. Electromagnetism is the branch of physics that studies the interactions between electric charges and the resulting electric and magnetic fields unifying electricity, magnetism, and light into a single framework. The electromagnetic field is 1 of the 4 fundamental forces of nature. There are 3 subdivisions, electrostatics, magnetostatics, and electrodynamics. Electric forces allow different atoms to combine into molecules. Magnetic moments also play a role in chemical reactivity. Electromagnetism plays a role in modern technology. This is a fundamental subject that is known to be correct. Albert Einstein said that he stood on the shoulders of James Clerk Maxwell. Quantum Electrodynamics modifies Maxwell's equations to be consistent with the quantized nature of matter. An electromagnetic field is a physical field varying in space and time that represents the electric and magnetic influences generated by acting on electric charges. Any point in space can be categorized by an electric field and a magnetic field in flux. This is an electromagnetic wave. It is sometimes useful to describe electromagnetic fields in terms of potential energy and momentum. Electrostatics is the branch of physics that studies slow moving or stationery electric charges on macroscopic objects where quantum effects can be neglected. Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady and not changing with time. There is a connection with this area of micromagnetostatics and our flash memory that is used on today's linear computers. Classical electromagnetism was developed between 1820 and 1873.

Electromagnetism is a science of charge and of the forces and fields associated with charge. Electricity and magnetism are 2 aspects of electromagnetism. In 1905, General Relativity established without a doubt that electromagnetism describes electric and magnetic phenomena. Electrical and magnetic forces can be detected in regions called electric and magnetic fields. These fields are fundamental in nature and can exist in space far from the charge or current that generated them. James Maxwell showed that electric and magnetic fields travel together through space as waves of electromagnetic radiation. His equations provide a complete and elegant description of electromagnetism down to, but not including the subatomic scale. Electromagnetic forces have been combined into a common force called the electroweak force. Putting all the forces into 1 grand unified theory has not been achieved to date. An important aspect of electromagnetism is the science of electricity, which is concerned with the behavior of aggregates of charge including the distribution of charge within matter and the motion of charge from place to place. Voltage is the measure of the propensity of charge to flow from one place to another. When a light bulb is switched on, a current flows through a thin filament in the bulb. The current heats the filament to such a high temperature that it glows, illuminating its surroundings. Charge is a basic property of matter. Most bulk matter has a net positive and negative charge balance. Charges repel each other. The principle of charge conservation is a fundamental law of nature. The charge of an isolated system cannot change. Electric and magnetic forces are caused by electromagnetic fields. The term field denotes a property of space so that the field quantity has a numerical value at each point in space. These values may also vary with time.

Here is the fifty-second episode of Quantum Foam, Cosmology. The current sound set-up seems to be working good with minimal background noise. I want to give an up-to-date description of this subject. Cosmology is the scientific study of the universe as a whole. This is the branch of science that asks the biggest questions of them all. Cosmologists treat the whole universe as one object. This area is one of the most active parts of physics. That is why we are taking the time to go over this. Astronomy observes phenomena within the cosmos. Astrophysics explains the physics of how objects form, shine, and behave. Astrology, on the other hand, is not even a science. Each area has a clear focus. Cosmology is a special branch of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Astrology plays no part in cosmology. Cosmology has been built many times. George Lemaître proposed that the universe is expanding and began from a single, dense point. Edwin Hubble proved that galaxies are racing away from us, confirming the expansion by observation. The Big Bang is the leading explanation for how the universe began. In the first fraction of a second, the universe went through inflation. Within minutes, the first atomic nuclei formed, mostly Helium with traces of Deuterium and Lithium. The expanding universe is probably the single most important discovery in cosmology. When astronomers measure the light from distant galaxies, that light is stretched toward the red end of the spectrum. A redshift. The rate of expansion is called the Hubble Constant. Dark energy fills all of space. Properly explaining this idea is 1 of the field's central goals. We are actively attempting to do this as we speak. In 1965, 2 radio astronomers at bell labs, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, detected the Cosmic Background Radiation as a persistent hiss in their antenna.

Cosmology is a field of study that brings together the natural sciences, particularly Astronomy and Physics, in a joint effort to understand the physical universe as a unified whole. The universe may be infinite without bounds. The ancient Greeks likened the Milky appearance seen in the sky to a river of milk. We are seeing the stars within our spiral galaxy edge-on. The Sun is a star around which Earth and other planets revolve. If the kingdom of the stars seems vast, the realm of the galaxies is larger still. Another decent-sized galaxy is the Andromeda galaxy and is also known as M31. This is from the Messier object catalog. When the universe is viewed in the large, a dramatic, new feature arises, namely, the cosmological expansion. The cosmic background radiation appears to be a ghostly remnant of the first light of the primeval fireball reduced by cosmic expansion to a shadow of its former splendor. It still pervades every known corner of the universe. In cosmological scales, the lengths become so vast that we are measuring light that takes a significant fraction of age of the universe to cross. Jordano Bruno asked the obvious question, if there is a boundary or edge for space, what is on the other side? He was burned at the stake in the year 1600. Johannes Kepler stated in 1610 that the number of stars in the universe had to be finite. Even if the universe is spatially finite, photons from very distant galaxies simply do not have time to travel to Earth because of the finite speed of light. We can't even in principle see past the age of the universe at about 13.8 billion years old. To derive his 1917 cosmological model, Einstein had 3 additional assumptions that lay outside the scope of his equations. The universe both had to be the same now and at the beginning. This universe is isotropic and homogeneous and has a closed spatial geometry. The universe as a whole was considered to be static, meaning the large-scale structure doesn't vary with time. This is an unchanging universe. This is an appealing idea and is called the perfect cosmological principle.

Here is the fifty-first episode of Quantum Foam, Theories Of The Day. I am doing some tests with new sound equipment. I am using a dynamic cardioid microphone that has a frequency response between 55 and 14,000 hertz. It is a Shure sm48 microphone with a built in pop filter. Joe Rogen uses a nice Shure microphone. I am using a Behringer 8-channel mixer. I am also using a Behringer U-Control 222 sound card. I am doing this initial test in order to discuss some theories of the day. It goes the XLR microphone to the 8-channel mixer, then an RCA cable from the mixer to the sound card and then USB type C to the computer. We take some time to look up theories of the day. One idea is having the Theorem of the day to keep up on our mathematics. I have coined the term Fibonacci Satellite Constellation. This is for the purpose of having a Solar Internet. I talked to Dr. Michio Kaku about this about the usage of Quantum Foam. I believe we came up with an understanding. I wanted to try out this new equipment for the next decimal of the show. A theory is a set of coherent ideas and general principles that can be used to make meaning of the world around us. We are interested in Physical Science, Sociology, Philosophy, Psychology, Political Science, and Economics. There are some famous theories that we can go over. One is the Theory Of Evolution. Another is Utilitarianism that covers Philosophy. We are specifically interested in the Physical Sciences and related fields. The explanations given are highly simplified. More important theories are the General Theory Of Relativity and the Big Bang Theory. We also have Quantum Theory that states that particles can have both particle-like and wave-like properties. Related is the Many Worlds Hypothesis. There may be many parallel worlds. Then, we have Heliocentrism. Everything revolves around the Sun in this solar system. Theories help us make sense of the world around us. This is good stuff from one PhD to another. There is the main cosmological theory, which is the Lambda-CDM Model. It describes the cosmic microwave background radiation and the large-scale structure.

We take a look at what is being said about the Lambda-CDM cosmological model. An alternate theory is Modified Newtonian Dynamics. This proposes changes to gravity to explain galaxy formation without dark matter. Then, there is dynamical dark energy models. There may be physics required beyond the Lambda-CDM Model. Ongoing research attempts to explain the Dark Energy present in the Universe. Cosmology originated with the Copernican Principle and Newtonian Mechanics. Physical Cosmology as it is now understood began in 1915 with Einstein's General Theory Of Relativity. Take these mathematical models with a grain of salt. The Lambda Cold Dark Model is one of the most astonishing accomplishments in contemporary theoretical physics. This is built out of well-known physics. This model covers the evolution of large-scale structure of the universe. Contemporary cosmology rests on a framework that describes the evolution and large-scale structure of the universe through solutions of Einstein's field equations. The Lambda- CDM model attempts to describe the cosmic background radiation anisotropies and galaxy clustering. The Hubble Tension value is in contrast with the Lambda-CDM model. The expansion rate is what is in question. Other approaches either modify the matter content or alter the laws of gravity on cosmological scales. The new models explain the universe with the idea of rapid expansion of space built in. We are looking at the expansion history of the universe. This is cosmic expansion and structure formation. The Friedmann Equations describe the fundamental relationship in homogeneous and isotropic cosmology that links the expansion rate to energy density, curvature, and the cosmological constant. Dark Energy drives the accelerated expansion and is associated with the constant and a dynamic scalar field. We pay close attention to deSitter Spaces that have a positive cosmological value. We want to focus on cosmological models. There is the Big Bang model, the Steady-state model, the Inflationary model, the Lambda-CDM model, and you can switch out your model for this last one. Comparing these models helps us understand, not only what we know, but what remains uncertain. This is why the Lambda-CDM model likely isn't the final model.