In the preface of the Phenomenology of Spirit, Hegel states that everything hinges on grasping the True as Substance and Subject. This addresses the shortcomings of Schelling’s system, which Hegel criticizes for its monism, collapsing the distinction between subject and object. Hegel wants a system where the subject is both distinguished from and finds itself in the world.

Hegel critiques Schelling’s system as “a night in which all cows are black,” meaning it excludes specific characteristics. Schelling’s Substance is “inert simplicity,” subsuming the Subject and leaving no room for differentiation. Hegel contrasts this with his own Substance, a “Bacchanalian revel” including its modes, uniting the infinite and finite.
Hegel argues the absolute must include the flux of finitude and appearance, describing Substance as “living force,” laying the groundwork for seeing the absolute as subject. He illustrates this with: “This Substance is, as Subject, pure simple negativity... this reflection in otherness within itself... is the True.”

Hegel associates with holism, rejecting monism. He argues Spirit embodies identity-in-difference to the world, not cut off but not indistinguishable from it. In the Phenomenology, Hegel uses Consciousness to refer to man, shaped by “typical existential attitudes,” progressing through stages of understanding.


Initially, Consciousness operates from sense-certainty, gaining knowledge through direct experience. Hegel argues sense-certainty cannot account for self-awareness. Consciousness posits the object as independent, leading to difficulties. In Perception, Consciousness develops universals, creating a problematic relationship between substratum and properties. Consciousness then views objects as interconnected forces, resulting in dualism between the sensible world and the super-sensible beyond.

Consciousness rejects the super-sensible beyond, mastering the world through action, leading to the dialectic of the object. This shifts to the dialectic of the subject, where Consciousness conceives itself as Subject. The “aporia of the inverted world” leads to the realization that the essence of appearances is in the activity of the subject.

Hegel’s discussion of Stoicism marks a new attitude, seeing reality as permeated by reason. In Reason, Consciousness struggles with the relationship between Subject and Substance, feeling alienated from the ethical substance of Spirit. This alienation is necessary for Spirit’s development, overcoming the opposition between Subject and Substance.

Spirit achieves absolute knowledge, recognizing Substance as the product of its own activity, achieving true freedom. Hegel uses Science for the reflective examination of Consciousness, necessary for absolute knowing. This dialectical thinking recognizes the interpenetration of Subject and Substance, allowing Consciousness to see itself as the author of its world.
In the Phenomenology, Consciousness transitions to Logic, examining categories shaping its development. Logic reconciles Schelling’s philosophy of the absolute with reflection, showing reflection as a function of the absolute. The Logic presents categories constituting both reality and knowledge.

Substance becomes Subject when Consciousness recognizes the world as its own activity. This process of alienation is self-discovery, realizing its power and freedom. Through the dialectic of the subject, Consciousness sees itself as the creator of its world, grasping the absolute as Subject.



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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

Hegel discusses the relationship between Spirit and Art in the section on Absolute Mind in his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences. He argues that Art is a manifestation of the Absolute Mind, but it is limited by its sensuous externality and cannot fully express the infinite nature of Spirit.

Here are some of the key points Hegel makes about the relationship between Spirit and Art:

● Art arises from the need to give a concrete form to the abstract idea of Spirit. As the subjective consciousness of the Absolute Spirit takes shape, its immediacy produces the factor of finitude in Art.

● Art is limited by its sensuous externality. The beauty of art is tied to its physical manifestation, which is a finite and imperfect representation of the infinite Spirit.

● The beauty of art is characterized by the unity of nature and spirit. However, this unity is immediate and not spiritual. In a spiritual unity, the natural would be superseded by the spirit
.
● Art requires a "characteristic, meaningful nature-form which is significant of spirit" in order to express spiritual truth. This form is most fully realized in the human form.

● The artist's "enthusiasm," or inspiration, is a kind of divine force that works through the artist. The artist is a "master of the God" only in the sense that their technical skill and genius allow them to give form to the divine inspiration.

● The history of art reflects the development of Spirit. For example, the progression from symbolic art to classical art to romantic art mirrors the growing self-consciousness of Spirit.

● Beautiful art can only exist in religions where the spiritual principle is concrete and intrinsically free, but not yet absolute. In religions that are still tied to sensuous externality, art may actually signal the decline of that religion because it points to the need for a higher form of spiritual expression.

● Art, like religion, has its future in true religion. The limited value of the Idea expressed in art passes into the universality of revelation, where Spirit is fully known as free intelligence.

● Ultimately, the unity of Art and Religion is found in Philosophy. Philosophy grasps the necessity and freedom of the Absolute Idea through self-conscious thought, unifying the intuitive vision of Art and the representational form of Religion.

In conclusion, for Hegel, Art is an essential stage in the development of Absolute Mind, but it is a stage that must be superseded by the higher unity of thought found in Philosophy.


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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

Heidegger proposes a method called phenomenological ontology to investigate Being. This method is rooted in the hermeneutic of Dasein, meaning it seeks to interpret the Being of Dasein to uncover the meaning of Being in general1. Heidegger emphasizes that ontology and phenomenology are not separate disciplines but rather characterize philosophy itself in terms of its object (Being) and its approach.

Central to this method is the concept of phenomenology, which Heidegger adopts and adapts from Edmund Husserl1. Phenomenology, for Heidegger, involves "going back to the things themselves" to let entities show themselves from themselves as they are. This requires a rigorous, descriptive analysis that avoids imposing preconceived categories or theoretical frameworks.

Here are the key aspects of Heidegger's phenomenological ontology:

● Focusing on Dasein: Dasein, the entity for whom Being is a question, serves as the primary point of departure for the investigation4. By analyzing the existential structure of Dasein, specifically its temporality, the meaning of Being can be revealed.

● Existential Analytic of Dasein: This analytic involves a careful examination of the basic structures and ways of Being of Dasein, such as Being-in-the-world, care, understanding, and temporality. It prioritizes Dasein's average everydayness as the starting point for understanding its Being.

● Destruction of the History of Ontology: This involves critically examining traditional philosophical conceptions of Being, particularly their neglect of temporality and their focus on Being as presence-at-hand. This "destruction" aims to clear the ground for a more primordial understanding of Being.

● Hermeneutic Interpretation: The existential analytic is a hermeneutic endeavor, meaning it seeks to interpret and make sense of the phenomena of Dasein. This interpretation must be grounded in Dasein's own self-understanding and its pre-ontological ways of Being.

● Temporality as the Horizon of Being: Heidegger argues that time, specifically Dasein's temporality, is not merely a feature of Being but its very horizon. By understanding Dasein in terms of its temporal constitution, the meaning of Being can be grasped in its primordial unity and dynamism.

Heidegger's proposed method requires a shift away from traditional philosophical approaches that rely on abstract reasoning or the imposition of pre-determined categories. It emphasizes the importance of a concrete, phenomenological analysis of Dasein to unveil the meaning of Being in its full complexity.











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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

Conversation about Unhappy Consciousness

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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

A conversation about Hegel's Phenomenolog of Spirit.

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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

What does Hegel mean by the "Absolute"? This conversation tries to clarify that by analyzing the Phenomenology of Mind. 


It is a discussion about Hegel's philosophy, particularly focusing on his concepts of spirit, the absolute, and the phenomenology of spirit. The speakers aim to clarify Hegel's ideas by exploring his background in German idealism, influenced by Kant and Fichte, and the notion of spontaneous apperception. They explain that Hegel sees the mind as actively shaping our experience of the world, not just passively receiving it.

Hegel's concept of spirit is described as a dynamic, evolving process of consciousness that emerges through interactions with others, history, and culture. The phenomenology of spirit is likened to a journey where consciousness evolves by encountering and resolving contradictions, a process Hegel calls sublation.

The discussion also touches on the master-slave dialectic, a key example of how self-consciousness develops through the struggle for recognition. This dialectic illustrates the interdependence of master and slave, leading to deeper self-awareness.
The speakers promise to delve into Hegel's idea of the absolute in future discussions, hinting that it represents the culmination of spirit's journey towards complete self-knowledge. They also mention that Hegel's exploration includes stages like unhappy consciousness and reason, each contributing to the development of spirit.


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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

Hegel writes in paragraph 558 the following: For the objects of contemplation it has to produce, Art requires not only an external given material, under which are also included subjective images and ideas, but, for the expression of spiritual truth Art must use the given forms of nature with a significance which art must understand and make its own. Of all such forms of nature the human is the highest and the true, because only in it can the spirit have its corporeity and thus its visible expression.
 
This disposes of the principle of the imitation of nature in art: a point on which it is impossible to come to an understanding while a distinction is left thus abstract. In other words, as long as the natural is only taken in its externality, and not as the 'characteristic' meaningful nature which is the form that is significant to express the spiritual.
 
So how to understand this?
 
In paragraph 558, Hegel writes that for art to create objects of contemplation, it requires not only external materials, which include subjective images and ideas, but also the forms of nature. These forms must be imbued with a significance that art must understand and internalize to express spiritual truth. E.g. when an artist produces a still life its elements must have some significance. The choice of fruits or flowers is not simply a random choice.
We can see that in Classical Art as Hegel calls it. Especially in Greek art and the religion that was connected to it, there is one natural form that gets the highest attention. Among all natural forms, the human form is the highest and most true because it uniquely allows the human spirit to manifest itself in a corporeal and visible way. This fact alone challenges the principle of mere imitation of nature in art. In depicting a human body we are not just mimicking something that we have found in reality. The external form of the human body is not really an object of interest. The human spirit and intellect that is expressed in living humans and is expessed in the image of a human body is of vital interest in Greek Art. It is impossible to reach a true understanding if we only consider nature in its external form, without recognizing its 'characteristic' meaningful nature, which is essential for expressing the spiritual. So Art is never simply the imitation of natural reality. It idealizes the natural in order to express the spiritual.
 
Hegel writes in paragraph 559 the following. In such single shapes the 'absolute' mind cannot be made explicit: in and to art therefore the spirit is a limited natural spirit whose implicit universality, when steps are taken to specify its fullness in detail, breaks up into an indeterminate polytheism. With the essential restrictedness of its content, Beauty in general goes no further than a penetration of the vision or image by the spiritual principle, that is something formal, so that the thought embodied, or the idea, can, like the material which it uses to work in, be of the most diverse and unessential kind, and still the work be something beautiful and a work of art.

This is my attempt to make the text a little more transparant: in paragraph 559, Hegel explains that the 'absolute' mind cannot be fully expressed in individual forms. Therefore, in Art, the spirit is a limited natural spirit. When attempts are made to detail its implicit universality, it fragments into an for of polytheism. The nature of divinity is dispersed over a whole pantheon of gods, where each god represents an element of human spirituality.
Due to the inherent limitations of its content, Beauty, in general, does not extend beyond the spiritual principle's penetration of the vision or image. This means that the embodied thought or idea, and the material used to express it, can be diverse and seemingly unimportant, yet still result in something beautiful and a true work of art. The contents does not really matter any more in Romantic Art.
Let’s take a look at some of the keypoints:
 
1. Art's Requirements: Hegel states that for art to create objects that we can contemplate, it needs more than just external materials. These materials include not only physical objects but also subjective images and ideas.

2.Expression of Spiritual Truth: To express spiritual truth, art must use the forms of nature. However, these forms need to be understood and given significance by the artist.
 
3. Human Form as the Highest: Among all natural forms, the human form is the most significant. This is because only through the human form can the spirit manifest itself in a physical and visible way.
 
4. Beyond Imitation: Hegel challenges the idea that art should merely imitate nature. He argues that true understanding and expression in art come from recognizing the deeper, meaningful aspects of nature, not just its external appearance.
 
5. Limitations of Individual Shapes: Hegel explains that the 'absolute' mind, or the ultimate reality, cannot be fully expressed through individual shapes or forms.

6. Art's Limited Scope: In art, the spirit is seen as a limited natural spirit. When we try to detail its universal nature, it breaks down into many different forms, leading to what Hegel calls an "indeterminate polytheism" (a variety of gods or forms).

7. Beauty's Restriction: Beauty, according to Hegel, is limited to the extent that it can only penetrate the vision or image with the spiritual principle. This means that the ideas and materials used in art can be diverse and not necessarily essential, yet they can still result in something beautiful and artistic.

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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

You can find the text here:

https://hegelcourses.wordpress.com/romantic-art-impressionism-and-cubism-an-hegelian-approach/

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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

Vincent van Gogh can be seen as a pivotal figure in the development of art, because he shows the deep interplay between the inner life of the artist and the Spirit's movement toward self-realization. Van Gogh's work transcends any purely aesthetic appreciation; his work is a profound exploration of human emotion, existence and the struggle for meaning in a world full of challenges and contradictions. Van Gogh's paintings exude an intense emotionality that stems from his personal experiences. His use of color, bold brushwork and dynamic compositions are not merely stylistic choices but serve as a means of expressing the chaotic nature of the human spirit.
In this respect, he exemplifies the Romantic ideal, in which art becomes a vehicle for the exploration of individuality and the depth of feelings. His depiction of everyday scenes, landscapes and people is imbued with a sense of transcendence, in search of a deeper connection to the essence of life itself. Moreover, Van Gogh's work can be viewed through the lens of dialectic, with each painting serving as a synthesis of personal experiences and universal themes.
In his art, we find the tension between the finite and the infinite - a struggle characteristic of the human condition. His depiction of nature, for example, reflects both beauty and suffering, capturing the complexity of existence.
The iconic “Starry Night” vividly illustrates this interaction: the swirling night sky represents the chaos and tumult of the mind, while the quiet village below suggests a longing for peace and togetherness.
In a deeper sense, Van Gogh represents the transition from classical to modern art, where the emphasis shifts from the representation and idealization of objective reality to the subjective perception and experience of reality. This departure from traditional norms marks a crucial moment in the historical development of art, which is moving toward abstraction and expressionism. Van Gogh is thus both a product and a pioneer of his time, a harbinger of a new direction in the artistic exploration of self and existence.
His tragic fate adds a poignant layer to his philosophical importance. The profound alienation he experienced during his lifetime underscores the tension between the individual's search for authenticity and the often overwhelming world that resists it. In this sense, Van Gogh can be seen as a tragic hero, struggling with existential truths that resonate deeply with the human experience.
Van Gogh's philosophical importance lies in his ability to establish a dialogue between the individual and the universal, between emotion and existence. His art serves not only as an expression of personal turmoil but also as a reflection of the broader existential struggle that defines the human condition. Through his work, we see glimpses of the unfolding of Spirit in its pursuit of self-understanding, ultimately contributing to the ever-changing narrative of human experience and artistic expression. Contemporary art often plays with and challenges traditional conceptions of truth and reality in various ways. This exploration can be seen as a dialogue between the artwork and the viewer, constantly challenging expectations about representation, meaning and context.

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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant

Hegel explores the idea of "sensuous externality" in relation to beauty, which refers to the tangible and perceptible aspects of beauty that we experience through our senses. This direct experience shapes our understanding of beauty, meaning that how beauty presents itself physically influences our perception of it.

He introduces the concept of the "God of art," who embodies spirituality while also existing in a natural, physical form. In the realm of art, the divine or spiritual is expressed through natural mediums, creating a unity of nature (the physical) and spirit (the spiritual) that we experience immediately and sensuously. This unity is not an abstract idea; rather, it is something we can perceive directly through our senses. Hegel distinguishes this unity from the notion of "absolute spirit," which represents a purely spiritual unity where the natural is merely an ideal or concept.

In the case of absolute spirit, the natural is overshadowed by the spiritual, and the spiritual content exists only in relation to itself. In contrast, in art, the unity of nature and spirit is a direct, sensory experience where the two are intertwined.

In sum, Hegel argues that in art, the divine or spiritual is expressed through physical forms, creating an immediate unity of nature and spirit that we can directly experience. This unity is different from a purely spiritual unity, where the natural is only an abstract concept. On the subjective side, Hegel discusses the community's ethical life, which is characterized by an awareness of its spiritual essence. This awareness leads to a form of self-consciousness and a significant level of freedom, which he describes as "substantial liberty." 

However, this freedom is limited by the "stigma of immediacy," meaning it lacks deeper reflection and introspection. As a result, the individual's sense of freedom is superficial and does not involve profound self-reflection or moral awareness. Hegel suggests that these limitations affect how individuals express their devotion and worship in the context of fine art. The immediate and somewhat superficial nature of their freedom influences their religious practices and artistic expressions, which are integral to their cultural and spiritual life. 

In conclusion, while the community possesses an ethical and spiritual awareness that enhances its sense of freedom, this freedom is constrained by a lack of deep self-reflection and moral consciousness. These constraints, in turn, shape how the community engages in religious and artistic practices.

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"Dare to use your own reason" - Immanuel Kant