Athenagoras of Athens, an early Christian apologist of the 2nd century, authored On the Resurrection of the Dead around 177 AD to address both pagan skepticism and philosophical misunderstandings surrounding the bodily resurrection. In a Greco-Roman world where Platonic and Stoic thought dominated the masses, many viewed the resurrection of the body as either impossible or undesirable. Athenagoras counters this by demonstrating that the resurrection aligns with the rational order of creation and God’s justice.

Athenagoras insists that the resurrection reveals the integrity of human nature, created in the image of God, destined for eternal life. His arguments prefigure later patristic reflections on theosis, the transfiguration of the body and soul in Christ. Thus, On the Resurrection of the Dead holds an enduring place in Orthodox theology, providing a foundation for our understanding of eschatology and the ultimate restoration of all things in Christ.

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The fifth and final book of Against Heresies by Saint Irenaeus of Lyons begins by reaffirming the teachings of the Church, which have been preserved from the prophets through Christ and the apostles. He emphasizes the importance of the apostolic tradition and the integrity of the Church in maintaining the true faith. This foundation is crucial as he addresses the false teachings that have emerged, particularly those that distort the nature of God, Christ, and salvation.

A significant portion of the book deals with the concept of resurrection. Irenaeus argues against those who deny the bodily resurrection, affirming that the same God who created mankind promises to restore creation to its intended glory. He interprets scriptural references to support the belief in a physical resurrection, aligning it with the teachings of Christ and the apostles. He insists that the resurrection is not merely a spiritual or metaphorical event but a physical reality that reflects the true nature of God's redemption plan.

Furthermore, Irenaeus tackles the problem of evil and suffering. He explains that these are permitted by God for the ultimate good of humanity, serving as a means to reveal the power and justice of God. He argues that understanding and enduring suffering can lead to spiritual growth and deeper communion with God. This perspective offers a theodicy that justifies the presence of evil in a world created by a benevolent deity.

To Autolycus is an apologetic work by Theophilus of Antioch, written around 180 A.D. Although not much is known about the life of Theophilus, Eusebius and Jerome note that he was a defender against heresies. Sadly, To Autolycus is his only extant work. In 168 A.D. he became bishop of Antioch where he served until around 182 A.D. It bears noting here that this Theophilus of Antioch is not the same as the Theophilus greeted in the books of Luke and Acts.

Composed in three books, To Autolycus addresses a pagan named – you guessed it – Autolycus. In it, Theophilus, a convert from paganism with a strong background in Greek philosophy, critiques Greek mythology and polytheism, and advocates for the coherence and superiority of Christian monotheism.

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Tatian's "Address to the Greeks," was written around 160-170 A.D. Originally a pagan, Tatian converted to Christianity after encountering Justin Martyr's teachings in Rome. After Justin's martyrdom, Tatian returned to Syria and established an influential Christian school. 

In "Address to the Greeks," Tatian condemns Greek moral decay and philosophical inconsistencies, asserting that many Greek ideas were borrowed from older sources. He argues that Christian doctrine is both morally superior and more ancient than Greek philosophy, claiming that the wisdom of figures like Moses predated and surpassed that of Greek philosophers.

Although Tatian’s work, particularly his Diatessaron which harmonizes the four gospels into a single narrative, is an admirable contribution to Christian literature, he promoted a kind of extreme asceticism unknown to the received tradition. Saint Irenaeus of Lyon, who was a contemporary of Tatian, called such individuals Encratites, noting that they “preached against marriage, thus setting aside the original creation of God, and indirectly blaming Him who made the male and female for the propagation of the human race.” He goes on to claim that this heresy came “springing from Saturninus and Marcion” (AH, 5.28.1). For his part, Eusebius of Ceasarea names Tatian as the author of the Encratite heresy (EH, 4.28–29).

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Book 4 of Against Heresies – the longest of the five books – is a critical defense of early Christian orthodoxy, addressing and refuting Gnostic beliefs. A significant portion of the Book defends the Old Testament against Gnostic claims of its irrelevance. In light of the Gnostic claim of secret knowledge, Irenaeus hearkens to Apostolic Tradition, noting its centrality to the Christian faith. He argues that God’s revelation is intended for all believers, not just a select few with special insights.

Elsewhere, he addresses the ethical implications of Christian faith, critiquing the Gnostic disregard for moral laws. He emphasizes that true knowledge of God should lead to righteous living, distinguishing orthodox Christianity from Gnostic practices. Finally, he concludes with the economy of salvation and the important dimension of faith. 

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In Book 3 of Against Heresies, Saint Irenaeus of Lyons continues his refutation of Gnostic teachings and elaborates on the unity and truth of the Christian faith. He begins by pointing out that the Apostles did not speak about the mysteries of God until they received gifts and power from the Holy Spirit. The fact that we have an unbroken lineage from the Apostles to our own day points to this power. Indeed, Irenaeus lists, by name, the bishops of Rome in this lineage, further drawing out that it is through the Church – through the Holy Spirit – that the truth is preserved. And it is in the church that it can be found. Next, he shows how the Holy Spirit is present in the Old Testament, reaffirms that God is the creator, not a demiurge, and refutes the error of the Ebionites who claimed that the Apostle Paul was the only Apostle with true wisdom. 

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Within the Second Book of Against Heresies, Saint Irenaeus endeavors yet again to lay bare the sophistries of the gnostic sects by demonstrating that neither the angels nor any supposed Demiurge distinct from a higher, supreme God created the universe. Instead, he shows that there is but one God – and it is this one God who created the Universe. Building upon his work in the first book, he further shows that the created world is neither an image nor a shadow of a higher spiritual plane. Such gnostic inventions, he claims, are the result of a wicked interpretation of scripture – a hermeneutic that he corrects by explaining the proper method of interpretation. 

In the last portion of the book, Ireneaus explores the relationship between the body and the soul. In Chapter 29, he briefly explores their resting states after biological death. Later he touches on metempsychosis arguing that logic does not permit the passing of the soul from one body to another after death simply because the soul would remember the experiences in prior bodies. In Chapter 34, he notes that souls can be recognized in the liminal space of being separated from the body before the general resurrection – something possible by what Saint Augustine would call a quasi corpus in On the Soul and Its Origin, 4.34 (for more on the soul, check out my book here).

According to Irenaeus, it would seem that many of the issues that plague Christianity today were already present in the late second century (namely, restricting God to man-made systems designed to use human reason to explain things better left to the wisdom and mystery of God). 

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Against Heresies by Saint Irenaeus is a critique of the emerging heretical doctrines of the second century. Written around 180 A.D by the prominent Bishop of Lyons, the monumental work showcases Irenaeus’ comprehensive understanding of Sacred Scripture and Apostolic Tradition, as he passionately refutes the teachings of the Marcions and gnostics.

Composed of five books total, Book1 of Against Heresies primarily focuses on the dangers posed by various gnostic sects and their teachings. Irenaeus lays out the beliefs and practices of these groups, highlighting their departure from Orthodox Christianity. He explains the central tenets of the gnostic worldview, including duality between matter and spirit, the role of secret knowledge, and the denial of the physical resurrection. He argues that these ideas distort the true nature of God, the identity of Jesus Christ, and the purpose of his redemptive works.

Through his examination of different gnostic teaching, Ireneaus seeks to warn and educate Christians on the deceptive nature of heresy and to assert the importance of holding fast to the apostolic tradition.

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The Dialogue with Trypho, composed around 155-160 AD, is a foundational work by the early Christian philosopher and apologist Saint Justin Martyr. Structured as a Socratic dialogue, it records Justin's debate with a Jewish man named Trypho, representing the contemporary discourse between Christians and Jews. In a dialectical style, Justin aims to demonstrate how the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament find fulfillment in Jesus Christ.

This text provides invaluable insight into the biblical interpretation, exegetical methods, and theological reasoning of the 2nd century Church. A central focus is establishing Christianity's relationship to Judaism. Justin contends Christ ushered in the New Covenant, abrogating the Mosaic Law. He argues from scripture that Jesus is the divine Logos incarnate, the prophesied Messiah to whom all scripture points.

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Another key issue is the status of Israel after rejecting Christ. Justin sees this justifying God's turning to the Gentile nations to build his Church. He counters Jewish objections to Christian interpretations of scripture being about Christ. Philosophically, Justin defends Christian doctrines like the incarnation as rationally coherent against pagan critiques.

The Dialogue carries immense importance for understanding nascent Christian thought. It preserves the biblical exegesis, theological discourse, and apologetic arguments aimed at convincing Jews and pagans of Christianity's truth. This first-hand testimony illuminates the early Church's self-conception and outlines core doctrinal developments on topics like Christology and the Old/New Covenants. With its sophisticated reasoning, the Dialogue displays the intellectual foundations being laid for the budding Christian tradition.

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The second apology of Saint Justin Martyr was written during the second century as a defense of the Christian Faith against unjust persecution. At the time, Christianity was seen as a threat to the established pagan religious practices, resulting in sporadic outbreaks of violence against Christians.

Tragically, the defense offered by Saint Justin Martyr was not enough to protect him from persecution. Despite his erudite arguments, Justin Martyr was eventually arrested and brought before the Roman authorities. Refusing to renounce his faith, he was condemned to death and martyred for his beliefs. Though his earthly life was taken, his legacy lives on as a pillar of early Christian intellectual and spiritual thought.

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