The provided text offers a comprehensive overview of X-ray Diffraction (XRD), a non-destructive analytical technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of crystalline materials. It explains the fundamental principles of XRD, including the nature of X-rays, their interaction with matter, and the significance of Bragg's Law for understanding diffraction patterns. The text also details the instrumentation of an X-ray diffractometer, describing components like X-ray sources, beam conditioning optics, goniometers, and detectors, while highlighting recent advancements like Hybrid Photon Counting (HPC) detectors and benchtop systems. Furthermore, it surveys various XRD methodologies, differentiating between Powder XRD (XRPD) for polycrystalline materials and Single-Crystal XRD (SCXRD) for precise atomic structure determination, along with specialized techniques for thin films and in-situ/operando analysis. Finally, the text explores the analysis and interpretation of XRD data, covering qualitative and quantitative phase analysis, microstructural characterization, and advanced techniques like Rietveld refinement, emphasizing XRD's diverse applications across materials science, geology, pharmaceuticals, chemistry, and forensic science, and situating it within the broader landscape of characterization techniques while discussing future trends like AI-driven analysis and autonomous experimentation.

Research done with the help of artificial intelligence, and presented by two AI-generated hosts.