A Daily Dose of History: Events on this Day in History

• Balkan Campaign: The Avars lift the siege at the Byzantine stronghold of Tomis. Their leader Bayan I retreats north of the Danube River after the Avaro-Slavic hordes are decimated by the plague.
• The people of Sicily rebel against the Angevin king Charles I, in what becomes known as the Sicilian Vespers.
• Edward I sacks Berwick-upon-Tweed, during armed conflict between Scotland and England.
• Guru Gobind Singh establishes the Khalsa in Anandpur Sahib, Punjab.
• Joachim Murat issues the Rimini Proclamation which would later inspire Italian unification.
• Physicist Augustin Fresnel reads a memoir on optical rotation to the French Academy of Sciences, reporting that when polarized light is "depolarized" by a Fresnel rhomb, its properties are preserved in any subsequent passage through an optically-rotating crystal or liquid.
• The Florida Territory is created in the United States.
• The National Bank of Greece is founded in Athens.
• Ether anesthesia is used for the first time, in an operation by the American surgeon Dr. Crawford Long.
• One of the most important battles of the Dominican War of Independence from Haiti takes place near the city of Santiago de los Caballeros.
• Origins of the American Civil War: "Border Ruffians" from Missouri invade Kansas and force election of a pro-slavery legislature.
• The Treaty of Paris is signed, ending the Crimean War.
• Discovery of the chemical elements: Sir William Crookes announces his discovery of thallium.
• Danish prince Wilhelm Georg is chosen as King George of Greece.
• Alaska is purchased from Russia for $7.2 million, about two cents/acre ($4.19/km2), by United States Secretary of State William H. Seward.

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• Paris is sacked by Viking raiders, probably under Ragnar Lodbrok, who collects a huge ransom in exchange for leaving.
• The Ottoman Empire under Murad II captures Thessalonica from the Republic of Venice.
• Battle of Towton: Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Edward IV of England, bringing a temporary stop to the Wars of the Roses.
• Cesare Borgia is given the title of Captain General and Gonfalonier by his father Rodrigo Borgia after returning from his conquests in the Romagna.
• The city of Salvador da Bahia, the first capital of Brazil, is founded.
• Treaty of Saint-Germain is signed returning Quebec to French control after the English had seized it in 1629.
• King Gustav III of Sweden dies after being shot in the back at a midnight masquerade ball at Stockholm's Royal Opera 13 days earlier. He is succeeded by Gustav IV Adolf.
• Construction is authorized of the Great National Pike, better known as the Cumberland Road, becoming the first United States federal highway.
• King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden abdicates after a coup d'état. At the Diet of Porvoo, Finland's four Estates pledge allegiance to Alexander I of Russia, commencing the secession of the Grand Duchy of Finland from Sweden.
• Great Bosnian uprising: Bosniaks rebel against Turkey.
• Mexican-American War: United States forces led by General Winfield Scott take Veracruz after a siege.
• The United Kingdom annexes the Punjab.
• Sepoy Mangal Pandey of the 34th Regiment, Bengal Native Infantry mutinies against the East India Company's rule in India and inspires the protracted Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny.
• American Civil War: Federal forces under Major General Philip Sheridan move to flank Confederate forces under Robert E. Lee as the Appomattox Campaign begins.

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• Roman emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, bestowed on him by the Senate.
• After assassinating the Roman Emperor Pertinax, his Praetorian Guards auction off the throne to Didius Julianus.
• Roman Emperor Valentinian I appoints his brother Flavius Valens co-emperor.
• The foundation stone of Valletta, Malta's capital city, is laid by Jean Parisot de Valette, Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.
• Juan Bautista de Anza finds the site for the Presidio of San Francisco.
• Partitions of Poland: The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a northern fief of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, ceases to exist and becomes part of Imperial Russia.
• Treaty of Florence is signed, ending the war between the French Republic and the Kingdom of Naples.
• Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers discovers 2 Pallas, the second asteroid ever to be discovered.
• Peninsular War: France defeats Spain in the Battle of Medellín.
• War of 1812: In the Battle of Valparaíso, two American naval vessels are captured by two Royal Navy vessels.
• First concert of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Otto Nicolai.
• Crimean War: France and Britain declare war on Russia.
• First Taranaki War: The Battle of Waireka begins.

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• Pope Clement V imposes excommunication and interdiction on Venice, and a general prohibition of all commercial intercourse with Venice, which had seized on Ferrara, a papal fiefdom.
• Pope John XXII issues his In Agro Dominico condemning some writings of Meister Eckhart as heretical.
• Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León reaches the northern end of The Bahamas on his first voyage to Florida.
• Charles I becomes King of England, Scotland and Ireland as well as claiming the title King of France.
• The first of four destructive Calabrian earthquakes strikes southern Italy. Measuring magnitude 6.8 and assigned a Mercalli intensity of XI, it kills 10,000-30,000 people.
• The Second Rockingham ministry assumes office in Great Britain and begins negotiations to end the American War of Independence.
• The United States Government establishes a permanent navy and authorizes the building of six frigates.
• Peninsular War: A combined Franco-Polish force defeats the Spanish in the Battle of Ciudad Real.
• War of 1812: In central Alabama, U.S. forces under General Andrew Jackson defeat the Creek at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
• Texas Revolution: On the orders of General Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Mexican Army massacres 342 Texian Army POWs at Goliad, Texas.
• The first international rugby football match, when Scotland defeats England in Edinburgh at Raeburn Place.

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• Emperor Maurice proclaims his son Theodosius as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire.
• On the feast of Eid al-Adha, the death of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, kept secret for six weeks, is announced, along with the succession of his son, al-Zahir li-i'zaz Din Allah. On the same day, al-Hakim's designated heir, Abd al-Rahim ibn Ilyas, is arrested in Damascus and brought to Egypt.
• Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
• Saladin becomes the emir of Egypt.
• The Siege of Algeciras, one of the first European military engagements where gunpowder was used, comes to an end.
• Combat of the Thirty: Thirty Breton knights call out and defeat thirty English knights.
• William Caxton prints his translation of Aesop's Fables.
• Guru Amar Das becomes the Third Sikh guru.
• Utrecht University is founded in the Netherlands.
• The Royal Academy of Turku, the first university of Finland, is founded in the city of Turku by Queen Christina of Sweden at the proposal of Count Per Brahe.
• Silver-loaded Spanish ship San José is pushed south by strong winds, subsequently it wrecks in the coast of southern Chile and its surviving crew is killed by indigenous Cuncos.
• Safavid government troops take control of Basra.
• William Dampier is the first European to circumnavigate New Britain, discovering it is an island (which he names Nova Britannia) rather than part of New Guinea.

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• Italian city Venice is founded with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo di Rialto on the islet of Rialto.
• Romanos Lekapenos seizes the Boukoleon Palace in Constantinople and becomes regent of the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII.
• Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah assassinates the eunuch chief minister Barjawan and assumes control of the government.
• Robert the Bruce becomes King of Scots (Scotland).
• The Council of Pisa convenes, in an attempt to heal the Western Schism.
• Hernando Cortes, entering province of Tabasco, defeats Tabascan Indians.
• Jerome Savage takes out a sub-lease to start the Newington Butts Theatre outside London.
• Sir Walter Raleigh is granted a patent to colonize Virginia.
• Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is discovered by Christiaan Huygens.
• A French fleet anchors nears Fife Ness as part of the planned French invasion of Britain.
• The Treaty of Amiens is signed as a "Definitive Treaty of Peace" between France and the United Kingdom.
• The Swansea and Mumbles Railway, then known as the Oystermouth Railway, becomes the first passenger-carrying railway in the world.

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• King Richard I of England is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting in France, leading to his death on April 6.
• English victory over a Franco-Castilian-Flemish fleet in the Battle of Margate off the coast of Margate.
• Turco-Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus.[full citation needed]
• James VI of Scotland is proclaimed King James I of England and Ireland, upon the death of Elizabeth I.
• Tokugawa Ieyasu is granted the title of shōgun from Emperor Go-Yōzei, and establishes the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo, Japan.
• The Province of Carolina is granted by charter to eight Lords Proprietor in reward for their assistance in restoring Charles II of England to the throne.
• Johann Sebastian Bach dedicated six concertos to Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt, now commonly called the Brandenburg Concertos, BWV 1046–1051.
• Great Britain passes the Quartering Act, which requires the Thirteen Colonies to house British troops.
• In Kraków, Tadeusz Kościuszko announces a general uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia, and assumes the powers of the Commander in Chief of all of the Polish forces.

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• The Trần dynasty of Vietnam is deposed, after one hundred and seventy-five years of rule, by Hồ Quý Ly, a court official.
• Waltham Abbey is surrendered to King Henry VIII of England; the last religious community to be closed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries.
• The Peace of Longjumeau is signed, ending the second phase of the French Wars of Religion.
• American Revolutionary War: Patrick Henry delivers his speech – "Give me liberty, or give me death!" – at St. John's Episcopal Church, Richmond, Virginia.
• Tsar Paul I of Russia is struck with a sword, then strangled, and finally trampled to death inside his bedroom at St. Michael's Castle.
• After traveling through the Louisiana Purchase and reaching the Pacific Ocean, explorers Lewis and Clark and their "Corps of Discovery" begin their arduous journey home.
• Greek War of Independence: Battle and fall of city of Kalamata.
• A massive earthquake destroys the former capital Inwa of the Konbaung dynasty, present-day Myanmar.
• The ship John Wickliffe arrives at Port Chalmers carrying the first Scottish settlers for Dunedin, New Zealand. Otago province is founded.
• Elisha Otis's first elevator is installed at 488 Broadway New York City.
• American Civil War: The First Battle of Kernstown, Virginia, marks the start of Stonewall Jackson's Valley Campaign. Although a Confederate defeat, the engagement distracts Federal efforts to capture Richmond.
• The University of California is founded in Oakland, California when the Organic Act is signed into law.
• War of the Pacific: The Battle of Topáter, the first battle of the war is fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru.
• Sino-French War: Chinese victory in the Battle of Phu Lam Tao near Hưng Hóa, northern Vietnam.

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• Start of the Bostran era, the calendar of the province of Arabia Petraea.
• Roman emperor Severus Alexander is murdered, marking the start of the Crisis of the Third Century.
• Æthelred of Wessex is defeated by a Danish invasion army at the Battle of Marton.
• Battle of Yashima: the Japanese forces of the Taira clan are defeated by the Minamoto clan.
• Vox in excelso: Pope Clement V dissolves the Order of the Knights Templar.
• Ferdinand II of Aragon commissions Amerigo Vespucci chief navigator of the Spanish Empire.
• The Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony sign a peace treaty with Massasoit of the Wampanoags.
• Jamestown massacre: Algonquians kill 347 English settlers around Jamestown, Virginia, a third of the colony's population, during the Second Anglo-Powhatan War.
• The Massachusetts Bay Colony outlaws the possession of cards, dice, and gaming tables.
• Anne Hutchinson is expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for religious dissent.
• Nader Shah occupies Delhi in India and sacks the city, stealing the jewels of the Peacock Throne.
• The British Parliament passes the Stamp Act that introduces a tax to be levied directly on its American colonies.
• The Emerald Buddha is moved with great ceremony to its current location in Wat Phra Kaew, Thailand.
• The Slave Trade Act of 1794 bans the export of slaves from the United States, and prohibits American citizens from outfitting a ship for the purpose of importing slaves.
• In the London Protocol, the three protecting powers (United Kingdom, France and Russia) establish the borders of Greece.

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• Siege of Rome: King Vitiges attempts to assault the northern and eastern city walls, but is repulsed at the Praenestine Gate, known as the Vivarium, by the defenders under the Byzantine generals Bessas and Peranius.
• Emperor Heraclius returns the True Cross, one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem.
• Battle of Vincy between Charles Martel and Ragenfrid.
• Annulment of the marriage of King Louis VII of France and Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine.
• On the day of his execution in Oxford, former archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer deviates from the scripted sermon by renouncing the recantations he has made and adds, "And as for the pope, I refuse him, as Christ's enemy, and Antichrist with all his false doctrine."
• A fire in New Orleans leaves most of the town in ruins.
• With the church leadership driven out of Rome during an armed conflict, Pius VII is crowned Pope in Venice with a temporary papal tiara made of papier-mâché.
• The Battle of Alexandria is fought between British and French forces near the ruins of Nicopolis near Alexandria in Egypt.
• Code Napoléon is adopted as French civil law.
• Napoleonic Wars: Austrian forces repel French troops in the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube.

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