My AP Biology Thoughts

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, our names are Celine, Xavier, and Sofie and we are your hosts for this episode called Unit 7 Natural Selection: Examples of Evolution-Toxic River Fish. In episode 120, we will be discussing the Toxic River Fish and how it relates to the AP Biology Curriculum. 

We want to thank our sources for the information presented in this podcast episode today which include national geographic and NPR. You can find the citations and links to these sources in the show notes.

• To begin with the overview, the species of fish we will be discussing today are the tomcod
• This species of fish lives in the waters of New Jersey and New York, usually found in the Hudson River where pollutants and chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyl was dumped between 1947-1976 by General Electric companies
• Therefore they developed a gene the resulted in an immunity

• We can see the evolution of Toxic River fish from the molecular Evolution that was changing in DNA sequences. 
• When the pollutants entered the hudson river it resulted in 95% of the fish developing liver tumors.
• The toxins from the electric company entered the nucleus of cells and For some fish it caused a distortion of DNA instructions. This would cause some to most of the fish in the river to get sick and die.
• By chance, the Toxic River Fish had a version of that gene that tolerated the PCB and toxins
• The toxic river fish evolved to handle dangerous chemicals that were dumped in the river and Overtime the toxic river fish that had the resistant gene did better than the fish without it
• Technically they’re not mutants, but the chemicals did give one genetic group an advantage over the others
• This is where survival of the fittest played a role, the fish that could resist toxins would have a higher rate of survival than those without out resistance 
• The ability to resist the toxins caused the toxic river fish to lose some ability to cope with natural stressors like low oxygen or abnormally high temperatures but they still had advantage above other fish

• Biology is the study of biotic organisms, and focuses on the dynamic and behavior. Evolution is 1/12 characteristics of biology.
• It connects to the course because it distinctly shows evolution through natural selection

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, our names are Beth, Gillie, and Addie and we are your hosts for Unit 7: Examples of Evolution- The Threespine Stickleback. In episode 119, we will be discussing The Threespine Stickleback and how it relates to the AP Biology Curriculum. 

The Threespine stickleback fish live in the ocean and in lakes. The fish who live in the lake have been separated from the ocean sticklebacks for thousands of generations. Although there is a difference between ocean and lake sticklebacks, all freshwater sticklebacks can vary in shape and size depending on habitat. Scientists looked into the differences between lake and ocean sticklebacks by taking 50 fish from each population and comparing them.

Freshwater sticklebacks and ocean sticklebacks have a number of different physical characteristics. For example, Ocean Sticklebacks are generally much larger. They also differ in body length, spine length (and number), fin shapes, number of lateral plates (​​Genetic Science Learning Center, 2017, August). The scientists observed that the average number of lateral plates for ocean sticklebacks was 33. On the other hand, the average number of lateral plates was 5 in the lake stickleback. Additionally, Michael Bell ran an experiment where he determined just how fast this evolution was occurring. He tracked the genes of stickleback fish in lakes in Alaska and determined the speed at which evolution occurred (in just a decade) (Robert Sanders, M. R., & Sanders, R., 2021, June 21). More interesting, however, is the fact that fish evolved convergently across the globe due to similar conditions, despite being isolated for decades (Shen, H., 2012, April 04). 

The Threespine Stickleback demonstrates natural selection and adaptation in the environment, which directly relates to section 7.1 and 7.2. The data of how lake and ocean sticklebacks have adapted over time is a prime example of fitness. The environment of the lake and the ocean are different, and as a result, the lake stickleback has evolved to better suit this body of water. The evolution of the Threespine Sticklebacks caused by natural selection in different environments connects to 7.1 and 7.2.

Thank you for listening to this episode of My AP Biology Thoughts. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. See you next time!

Music Credits:

• "Ice Flow" Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com)
• Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 4.0 License
• http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

• Apple Podcasts

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, my name is Raelynn and my name is Samiyah and we are your hosts for Unit 7: Examples of Evolution - Plants and Birds. In episode 118, we will be discussing the plant Babiana ringens and how it has evolved to attract sunbirds.

• The Babiana ringens plant in South Africa evolved in such a way that increases the chance of  Nectarine famosa, or the malachite sunbird - their main pollinators- to stop by and drink nectar out of their flowers. In the certain region that these plants reside, most sunbirds avoid predators by staying away from the ground- as such, the Babiana ringens evolved to create a small perch, making it easier for birds to drink their nectar, and thus pollinate them, which in turn increased their evolutionary fitness. 

• Through a study conducted by botanist Spencer Barrett from the University of Toronto Canada, along with a team of researchers, they found that the sunbirds in the specific region of South Africa in which the plants with the perches reside used the perches to pollinate the plants, and were their main pollinators. 
• They went on to study other Babiana ringens plants across South Africa and found that they didn’t have the perches, and after studying them for some time, realized that their main pollinators weren’t the sunbirds that require the perches to make pollination easier. As such, the perch was an adaptation to the environmental pressures (of their main pollinators having been sunbirds). 

• The interactions between Babiana ringens and sunbirds demonstrate the concept of evolution and natural selection. The flowers with the perch were more “fit” for the environment since it encouraged the birds to perch on them and pollinate the flower. As a result, the Babiana ringens with the genes for the perch were able to both outlive and outpopulate those without perches. Over time, the gene for flowers without this stem faded away from the gene pool, and it became characteristic of Babiana ringens

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, my name is Diana along with Sofia and Saahith and we are your hosts for Unit 7: Examples of Evolution-The Three Toed Skink- and I know what you’re thinking…. nope this is not derogatory or a slur. In episode 117, we will be discussing the species the Three Toed Skink and how it relates to the AP Biology Curriculum. We want to thank our sources for the information presented in this podcast episode today which include Reptiles Magazine, National Geographic, Eurekalert.org, syfi.com, phys.org, and sciencedaily.com. You can find the citations and links to these sources in the show notes.

The three toed skink, aka Saiphos equalis, is found in eastern Australia, primarily in New South Wales and Queensland. The three-toed skink is sometimes mistaken for a snake, eats crawling insects and worms, and is active at night. The three toed skink is a “bimodally reproductive species” WHATS THAT this means that some lay eggs and some give birth. Dr. Whittington, from the School of Life and Environmental Sciences and Sydney School of Veterinary Science at the University of Sydney in the article “Biologists observe a three-toed skink lay eggs and give birth to a baby,” says, “Put in the context of evolutionary biology, being able to switch between laying eggs and giving live birth could allow animals to hedge their bets according to environmental conditions." There are at least 150 evolutionary transitions from egg-laying to live-bearing in vertebrates. To elaborate on this, Sofia will share the interesting evidence of evolution of the Three Toed Skink.

Thank you, Diana, for that beautiful introduction to our beloved skinks. In the article, “Which Came First, the Lizard or the Egg”, Dr. Camilla Whittington from the University of Sydney skink research team describes how the earliest vertebrates were egg-layers, but that over thousands of years, embryos remained inside their mother’s for longer, until some began live births. WHAAAAATTTT?? The Three-toed skinks are an example of a species that have evolved to perform both reproduction methods of egg-laying and live births. Get yourself a skink who does both. Direct observation studies have revealed that the skink species located on the warm weathered coasts of New South Wales lay eggs rather than performing live birth. On the contrary, the skinks located in the cold

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, my name is Shrithik Sekar, Kyle Mason, Gabe Moriello, and I am your host for Unit 7: Examples of Evolution, Darwin’s Finches. In episode 116, we will be discussing this topic and how it relates to the AP Biology Curriculum. 

“We want to also thank our sources for the information presented in this podcast episode today which include (Britannica, Galapogosisland.org, and Crash course Biology on Youtube). You can find the citations and links to these sources in the show notes.”

 What are Darwin's finches? 

• Who is darwin? - Geologist and Biologist, who formed the theory of natural selection. Known for his contributions to Science of evolution. He studied many finches which were found in the galapagos islands located 1,000 km off the coast of Ecuador 
• What were the finches? - These finches were a Group of 18 different species found in the Galapagos island. Darwin found the finches were all closely related with small direct observations that he made during his time in the Galapagos islands 
• What did he study? -During his studies while in the Galapagos islands, he concluded the speciation of the finches which is known as the experiment of Darwin’s finches  
• How does it relate to evolution? - It relates to evolution because it is an example of Direct observation 

 Connection direct observation evolution 

• What is direct observation of evolution? - Through observation, in small population sizes, it can be found many changes of one species to then create many subspecies. Through direct observation of evidence in almost every species. THis idea had to do with the last universal ancestor, how all species are alike in many ways and all stemmed from the same ancestor. These finches dna is super similar, but these small differences of dna created a difference in appearance which was found ny darwin. 
• ( This begs the question of ) Why are the finches an example of evolution? All 18 species of Darwin’s Finches were originally one finch species on the coast of south america. However, Darwin discovered that this species branched off into 18 different species on the Galapagos islands depending on the finches’ environment 
• What Key pieces of evidence did darwin find? - Darwin found the difference, fruit eating finches had wide beaks, insect eating finches had narrow beaks, and based on different factors of each finches environment each species had a different characteristic change. - GO TO Image 

Keenan: Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, my name is Keenan Wallace and I am your host for this podcast. In episode 115, we will be discussing the topic of Coywolves and how they relate to the AP Biology Curriculum. 

Keenan: For this episode, we’ve brought in Alex Profit and Serena Russel to discuss the evolution of coywolves. So, to start us off: what exactly is a Coywolf?

Alex: Well, ‘Coywolf’ is actually just a nickname for what is known to the scientific community as an eastern coyote. Eastern coyotes are hybrids of coyotes, wolves and dogs, however they are still primarily coyotes and remain as coyotes rather than wolves. 

Keenan: So you say that the Coywolves, or eastern coyotes are a mix of several different species. Do you know the genetic breakdown?

Serena: It’s difficult to say for certain since the coyotes’ genetic makeup varies by region and population, but according to a DNA analysis done by Evolutionary Biologist Javier Monzón, they are 64% coyote, 13% gray wolf, 13% eastern wolf, and 10% dog. 

Keenan: Wow, that’s some genetic diversity. So how do these new hybrids differ from their pure coyote ancestors?

Alex: For one thing, they’re larger. Eastern Coyotes are 35-37% larger than their western counterparts. They also have larger and more powerful heads, their ears are more rounded like a wolf’s and they have wolf-like fur markings. There’s lots of variation within and between populations, but coywolves' features tend to match the midpoint between coyotes and wolves. 

Keenan: Fascinating! So from what I understand, this interbreeding is a fairly recent development. What led to it?

Serena: This story started several hundred years ago with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas. When Europeans colonized the East Coast of America they started cutting down forests and hunting large prey in the region, which threatened the habitat and food source of local grey wolves. At the same time, western coyotes, which are adapted to more open terrain, were drawn east by the expansion of their preferred habitat via deforestation. With shrinking numbers of grey wolves and a new thriving population of coyotes in the region, it makes sense that the wolves soon turned to coyotes as mating partners. 

Serena: From there, natural selection took over. With the right mix of coyote and wolf DNA, a new species was created that was the best of both worlds. These “coywolves,” as they are called, are larger than coyotes, but inherited the social nature of wolves, meaning they form packs to hunt, which allows them to hunt large animals like deer in addition to the small prey that coyotes usually feed on. On top of that, they possess the strong ability of coyotes to adapt to urban environments, and are comfortable in both open and forested environments. 

Keenan: I can see why this mixing would be beneficial, but is it considered evolution, or just hybridization? 

Serena: Both....

Anushka Agarwal, Olivia Lundquist, & Hana Hamid 

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, our names are Anushka, Olivia, and Hana and we are your hosts for Unit 7: Examples of Evolution-Butterflies and parasites. In episode 114, we will be discussing Butterflies and parasites and how they relate to the AP Biology Curriculum. 

•  To start off, what is evolution? Evolution is the process by which different organisms develop from their ancestors to adapt to the environment they are living in. This idea was proposed by Charles Darwin to explain how species have the ability to evolve. We can look at the Blue Moon butterflies for examples and how they adapted to their environment to protect themselves from the killing parasite. The Blue Moon Butterfly, or Hypolimnas bolina, is an eggfly commonly found in New Zealand, Australia, New Guinea, Solomons, etc. The blue moon butterfly’s mating season is normally in the spring and summer. Their name is derived from the 2 bright circular patches on the backs of the males. Natural selection occurring between the butterflies and parasites is an example of evolution happening in real time. This is because scientists discovered that the bluemoon butterflies developed resistance in a span of 10 generations (which lasted a year). 
• Additionally, the peppered moth is a species of a night-flying moth which is most commonly found in the northern hemisphere in countries such as Europe, Asia, and North America. They are generally small moths (only 1.5-2.5 inches) and their eggs normally hatch during mid summer. While some moths are typically light in color, many have dark skins and normally have extra camouflage to protect them from their predators (which includes ​​flycatchers, nuthatches, and European robin). We can see a difference in the colors of the peppered moth due to the Industrial Revolution marked an era of industrial change in Europe and the United States from 1760-1840, which affected not only economy but the environment as well. 

•  mutation
• the changing of a structure of a gene that may result in a variant form → can have impact bc it has the potential of getting passed down that leads to evolution
• mutation: males can survive the infection of parasite that kills male embryos
• normally they cant(mutation allowed for them to live and complete term/live)
• Natural selection (blue moon butterflies) 
• Since the parasites normally targeted male blue moon butterflies, their population was a staggering 1%. However, because these butterflies obtained immunity from the parasite, their population bounced back to 40% in less than a year! 
• natural selection

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, I am Emily Greenberg and I am Angelina Graf and we will be your hosts for “Unit 7 Heredity: Examples of Evolution-antibiotic resistance”. In episode 113, we will be discussing antibiotic resistance and how it relates to the AP Biology Curriculum. 

• Antibiotics are drugs that fight infections that are caused by bacteria
• Antibiotic resistance is when bacteria and germs build up resistance to the medications that are meant to kill them
• Antibiotic resistant germs are often very difficult to treat and dangerous infections can emerge
• A common misconception is that antibiotic resistance means that the body is resisting antibiotics, however it is actually the bacteria that is becoming resistant to antibiotics
• Overuse of antibiotics is one of the main causes of antibiotic resistance

• Antibiotics also kill good bacteria that help to protect the body from infection
• Antibiotic resistant germs can spread throughout healthcare facilities, the environment, and other communities.
• The action of an antibiotic is an environmental pressure 
• Species have to adapt and evolve in order to survive these pressures
• We know that evolution is happening because bacterial infections can continue to spread even with the presence of antibiotics
• Penicillin resistance: 
• In WWI, penicillin treatment was used to treat the wounded and by some smaller civilian populations
• Biochemists began reporting resistance to it before the war was over and found a penicillin-inactivating enzyme secreted from a particular bacteria.
• Over the next few decades, overuse and repeated exposure to antibiotics helped the selection and replication of antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria

• Antibiotic resistance evolves as a result of natural selection and genetic mutation
• Bacteria that develop mutations that are resistant to antibiotics are more likely to survive and reproduce; this means that they are more fit
• If resistant bacteria reproduce with other resistant bacteria, their offspring will be fully resistant and this trait will become more frequent in the gene pool

Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, my name is Stefanie Ribecca and I am your host for episode # 104 called Unit 5 Heredity: Chromosomal Inheritance. Today we will be discussing how inheritance occurs in the chromosomal level. 

• Chromosomal inheritance is an extension of Mendelian genetics. 
• Chromosomes contain DNA which carry the genetic information that code for proteins. 
• Chromosomes are found in pairs, and increase genetic variation during meiosis.

• During meiosis, non sister chromatids in homologous pairs exchange information during crossing over.
• Certain genes may be close together on the chromosome and may appear to be inherited together. 

• Chromosomal inheritance allows for a combination of traits from both parents. 
• Genetic diversity from chromosomal inheritance allows individuals in a population to adapt to the environment. 

Thank you for listening to this episode of My AP Biology Thoughts.   For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com.  

• "Ice Flow" Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com)
• Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 4.0 License
• http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Welcome to My AP Biology Thoughts podcast, my name is Sid and I am your host for episode #112 called Unit 6 Gene Expression and Regulation: Biotechnology. Today we will be discussing how we use technology to study how the mechanisms of DNA and gene expression work.

The four main processes used in biotechnology that relate to this unit are bacteria transformation, PCR, electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing. Bacterial transformation makes multiple copies of a recombinant DNA molecule. PCR is used to produce millions of copies of a DNA sequence from an initial sample. Electrophoresis separates DNA and RNA molecules by their size and their electrical charge. DNA sequencing is used to determine the sequence of the bases in a DNA molecule.

• First we’ll talk about bacterial transformation. The process of bacterial transformation starts with mixing the prepared bacteria with DNA. Then the bacteria are heat shocked. This allows them to take up a plasmid. The bacteria that take up the plasmid become resistant to antibiotics, so we place all of the bacteria on an antibiotic plate. The ones that survive are the ones that are known to have taken up the plasmid since they survived the antibiotic. The bacteria without the plasmid end up dying. The bacteria that survived end up being used to create a cluster of identical bacteria that also contain the plasmid. The colony containing the plasmid is grown and used to produce the plasmid or proteins.
• Another form of biotechnology is PCR. To begin, the main ingredients (taq polymerase, primers, template DNA, nucleotides, and cofactors) are all added in a tube. The first step of PCR is denaturation. In denaturation the reaction is heated so that the DNA strands separate and create single strands. The next step is annealing where the reaction is cooled so that the primers bind to the complementary sequence on the DNA strands. The third step is extension. In this step the temperature is raised again so that the taq polymerase starts at the primers and synthesizes new strands of DNA. This cycle repeats between 25-35 times which ends up creating millions of copies of the same DNA region.
• Electrophoresis is another form of important bio technology. In electrophoresis, DNA samples are placed into indentations at one end of a gel. THis gel gets an electric current applied to it. Since DNA fragments are negatively charged, they move towards the positive electrode. Because the DNA fragments have the same charge, the smaller fragments are able to move through the gel faster than the large ones. This allows the DNA to be separated by size. The gel is then stained with a DNA binding dye which makes the DNA fragments appear as bands so that they can be observed.
• The last thing we are going to talk about is DNA sequencing. In DNA sequencing, the DNA strand goes through bacterial transformation so that we can produce many copies of it in a plasmid. The DNA is then isolated and goes into a plate with other ingredients like the DNA bases, DNA polymerase, primers, and modified bases labeled with colored fluorescent tags called terminator bases. This mixture then goes through a process very similar to PCR. The difference is when polymerase...