After the controversies in the mid-third century, in the aftermath of the persecution of the emperor Decius and the schism of Novatian, Pope St. Stephen was instrumental in clarifying the Church's theology of the sacraments of Baptism and Penance and Reconciliation. What is required for a valid baptism? What is the solution for falling away into mortal sin? Who may offer the absolution of the Church and by what authority? Are confession and penance to be done publicly, or privately? Should we rebaptize Protestants coming into the Catholic Church? What if I "backslide"? Should I get baptized again? Is it OK to baptize in an alternate formula, like "Creator, Redeemer, and Sustainer?" These questions, and more, were answered during the papacy of Stephen of Rome, which served to formalize and standardize the sacraments as we still know them today.

Links

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on Cyprian of Carthage, contemporary and sometimes opponent of Pope St. Stephen: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/ep-18-short-happy-life-cyprian-carthage/

For more on the third century context in the history of the early Church, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

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To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

Caius was a priest in Rome, in the third century. He wrote that if one comes to Rome, one can visit the shrines at the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul. These tombs had been known and visited since the apostle's deaths, and are known to this day - they are in the same place where Caius knew them. The tomb of St. Paul is directly under the main altar of the Basilica of St. Paul Outside the Walls, which was built on the site of the first memorial chapel, which was itself built on the site of the original shrine. The tomb of St. Peter is directly under the main altar of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City. The present St. Peter's Basilica, built in the renaissance, was built on the same site as the original St. Peter's, which was commissioned by the emperor Constantine in the fourth century. The tomb has always been directly under the altar.

Links

To read the fragments that we have from Caius: https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=1724&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2464384

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on Hippolytus, contemporary of Caius and antagonist of Pope St. Zephyrinus: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/ep-17the-long-strange-trip-hippolytus-rome/

For more on the third century context in the history of the early Church, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

The early Christian apologist Athenagoras may not be as famous as some of the other Church fathers, but he's a great example of someone who started out as an apologist against Christianity, but when he actually learned what the apostles and the Church taught, he was converted. He teaches us about the doctrines of the Trinity, and the Resurrection.

Links

To read Athenagoras' A Plea for the Christians: https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=1656&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2421225

To read Athenagoras' On the Resurrection of the Dead: https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=1657&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2421225

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on Justin Martyr: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/justin-martyr-everything-good-is-ours/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on Melito of Sardis: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/episode-11-melito-and-parting-ways/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on Minucius Felix: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/ep-11-minucius-felix-and-great-novel-antiquity/

For a short explanation of the word "consubstantial," see the video: "What Does Consubstantial Mean?": https://youtu.be/P9SGuaN-xjU?si=VaB4U3n6pZVdxsHp

For more on Athenagoras and the other apologists in the context of the history of the early Church, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

For more on the doctrine of the Trinity in the early Church, see the book: Trinity 101: Father, Son, Holy Spirit: https://www.liguori.org/trinity-101.html

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

In the first episode of an interim series on lesser known fathers, Dr. Papandrea introduces one of the "apostolic fathers," Papias of Hierapolis. We only have fragments of his writings, but those fragments started a controversy over the authorship of the book of Revelation and the Johannine letters. Papias is a good example of how the Church fathers, as individuals, were not right about everything - Papias was wrong in his methodology for interpreting the Book of Revelation, among other things, but he gives us some important clues into the authorship and writing of the Gospels.

Links

To read some of the fragments of Papias' Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord: https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=1609&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2418437

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on Ignatius of Antioch: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/episode-4-ignatius-antioch-to-know-jesus-christ-our-god/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on Polycarp of Smyrna: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/episode-5-st-polycarp-and-social-network/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode on the fourth century historian Eusebius of Caesarea: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/ep-25eusebius-history-from-wrong-side-history/

For more on Papas and the apostolic fathers, in the context of the history of the early Church, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

For Dr. Papandrea's take on the Book of Revelation, see the book: The Wedding of the Lamb: A Historical Approach to the Book of Revelation: https://wipfandstock.com/9781608998067/the-wedding-of-the-lamb/

To watch Dr. Papandrea's short video on the early hierarchy of the Church and the definitions of the Greek words for the clergy, see: Did The Original Church Have Bishops?: https://youtu.be/bXQ0UYfN9a0?si=SxFVGcfkiME9jlXa

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

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Throughout this series, Dr. Papandrea has been outlining the major heresies of the early Church, defining them in contrast to the orthodoxy of mainstream Catholicism. So after all of this, what can we say about orthodoxy (correct doctrine) in general? How do we know it when we see it, and how to we define it? What is the role of orthodoxy in the development of doctrine and the tradition of the Church?

Links

For an overview of the information in this series on the heresies, along with HELPFUL CHARTS showing the heresies and how they differ from orthodoxy, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

For an overview of the heresies using the analogies of popular culture, super heroes, and science fiction characters, see the book: From Star Wars to Superman: Christ Figures in Science Fiction and Superhero Films: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/from-star-wars-to-superman/

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

Does the devotional use of Christian art and iconography break the commandment against worshiping idols? How and where does one draw the line between legitimate reverence and idolatrous worship? In this controversy - as is often the case - the heresy is a criticism of an ancient practice. And you may be surprised to learn that the related tradition of the veneration of relics is even older!

Links

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 56 on John of Damascus: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/56john-damascus-last-witness-to-lost-world/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 2.8 on The Second Council of Nicaea: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/28-picture-this-iconoclasm-and-second-nicaea/

For a bit more on the icon controversy in context, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

The pendulum swings one more time as Eutyches overreacts against Nestorius, and emphasizes the union of the two natures in Christ, to the point of blurring the distinction between them. In this conception of the Person of Christ, the divine nature so overwhelms the human nature that Jesus' humanity is absorbed and cancelled out like a drop of oil in the ocean. This solution corrected Nestorius' separation of the two natures, but it went too far and compromised the integrity of his human nature and, even more than Apollinarius before him, described a Jesus who was not really fully human.

Links

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 46 on Cyril of Alexandria: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/46cyril-alexandria-fifth-century-man-from-uncle/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 48 on Leo the Great: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/48leo-great-who-roared-with-voice-peter/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 2.5 on The Council of Chalcedon: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/25-chalcedon-firm-foundation-for-doctrine-christ/

To read the Tome of Leo (Letter to Flavian): https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=2133&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2409252

To listen to the audiobook of the Tome of Leo: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/st-leo-great-tome-leo/

To read Cyril of Alexandria's On the Unity of Christ: https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_christ_is_one_01_text.htm

For more on the christological controversies in context, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

The pendulum swings again as Nestorius overreacts against Apollinarius, and emphasizes the distinction between the two natures in Christ, to the point of describing a radical separation of natures. It was as if Nestorius was saying that Christ is not one Person, but two - a divine Person and a human Person, united only as long as the human will submits to the divine will. This solution corrected Apollinarius' diminished human nature, but it divided the life and actions of Christ into two, even to the point of claiming that Mary was not the Mother of his divine nature.

Links

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 45 on John Cassian: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/045john-cassian-monk-on-move-solitary-in-city/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 46 on Cyril of Alexandria: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/46cyril-alexandria-fifth-century-man-from-uncle/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 2.4 on The Council of Ephesus: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/24-ephesus-mother-all-controversies/

To read John Casein's On the Incarnation of the Lord Against Nestorius: https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=2097&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2405100

To read Cyril of Alexandria's On the Unity of Christ: https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_christ_is_one_01_text.htm

For more on the christological controversies in context, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/

Apollinarius tried to say that Jesus could not have sinned because his human nature had no will of its own. In doing this, he stumbled onto a heresy called Monothelitism ("one-will" christology), which would become a huge controversy later. But a Christ without a human will would be a Christ who is not fully human. He would only be wearing a human body like a costume, but he would not be truly human.

Links

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 30 on Gregory of Nazianzus: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/gregory-nazianzen-greatness-in-passive-voice/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 2.3 on The Council of Constantinople: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/23-first-constantinople-capital-council/

To listen to Mike Aquilina's episode 54 on Maximus the Confessor: https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/54maximus-confessor-where-east-and-west-meet/

To read Gregory of Nazianzus' First Letter to Cledonius Against Apollinarius: https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=2459&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2402862

To read Gregory of Nazianzus' Second Letter to Cledonius Against Apollinarius: https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/fathers/view.cfm?recnum=2463&repos=8&subrepos=0&searchid=2402862

For more on the christological controversies in context, see the book: Reading the Church Fathers: A History of the Early Church and the Development of Doctrine: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/reading-the-church-fathers/

For more on the concept of the will of God as it relates to God's sovereignty, human free will, and the submission of the human will to the will of God, see the book: Praying Like the Early Church: Seven Insights from the Church Fathers to Help You Connect with God: https://sophiainstitute.com/product/praying-like-the-early-church/

SIGN UP for Catholic Culture's Newsletter: https://www.catholicculture.org/newsletters/

DONATE at: http://www.catholicculture.org/donate/audio

To connect with Dr. James Papandrea, On YouTube - The Original Church: https://www.youtube.com/@TheOriginalChurch

Join the conversation in the Original Church Community on Locals: https://theoriginalchurch.locals.com/

Dr. Papandrea's Homepage: http://www.jimpapandrea.com

Theme Music: Gaudeamus (Introit for the Feast of All Saints), sung by Jeff Ostrowski. Courtesy of Corpus Christi Watershed: https://www.ccwatershed.org/