We will now take an even closer look into Euler’s formula this time. More precisely we will investigate whether there exists a real number such that the imaginary unit times this real number plugged into the complex exponential function will give the imaginary unit as a result. In fact, as it will turn out, this is equivalent to finding roots of the cosine function. Having identified the cosine function as a continuous function we the apply the intermediate value theorem to obtain existence of such a zero. The existence of such a zero alone is sufficient to obtain periodicity and symmetry properties for both sin and cos. The only zero of cos in the interval from 0 to 2 will be called pi/2, which gives a stand alone definition of the precise value of pi.

Picture taken from https://fsymbols.com/images/pi-pie.jpg

This episode is concerned with one of the most striking formulas in mathematics. Namely the relationship between sin, cos, and the complex exponential for purely imaginary arguments. To derive this formula, we require a closer look into the complex exponential function. The most important fact that we will derive is that no matter the modulus of the purely imaginary number put into the complex exponential the result will always be on the unit circle. Whether or not we reach all elements of the unit circle in the complex plane while running through all purely imaginary numbers remains to be seen in the next episode.

Picture taken from https://hyrodium.tumblr.com/post/106601751454/euler1

In this episode we introduce an extension of the exponential function to arguments from the field of complex numbers. We briefly address convergence of sequences and series of complex numbers. We recover several properties from the real exponential function also in the complex case. Most importantly, we also have the functional equation valid in the complex case; thus, this newly defined function is both never zero and continuous, much like the real exponential function.

This episode is concerned with the field of complex numbers. In fact, we shall motivate the emergence of `imaginary numbers’ — particularly their prototype representative i — via entirely nothing really imaginary. Representing numbers as such as geometric operations we shall see that the number i can be interpreted as an operation on the plane. Indeed, in order to solve the equation x times x equals negative 1 for x, we look at the -1 as point reflection through the origin, which is the same as rotation by 180 degrees. Hence, two rotations by 90 degrees yield the point reflection and, thus, a solution x for the equation in question.

Picture taken from https://www.flickr.com/photos/mythoto/3958500788

In this episode we demonstrate that the inverse of continuous functions (i.e., the inverse mapping - not to confuse with the point wise reciprocal) is, too, continuous. For this we show that once a continuous functions maps an interval one-to-one into the reals it is necessarily also strictly monotone (either increasing or decreasing). This observation eventually helps us with the proof of our desired result. 

In this episode we provide the missing uniqueness part for our construction of general powers. More precisely, we will show that given any continuous function that satisfies the power law is actually a power. The technique to obtain this is by successively checking cases of increasing complexity: if the function satisfies the power law it behaves like a power for natural numbers, for integers, for rationals (using the uniqueness of the n-th root of non-negative numbers), and, finally, using continuity and density, for reals.

This episode is devoted to discuss a definition for what it means to raise a strictly positive real number to a real number. Up until now we were only able to do that for the exponential function, that is, we were able to raise e to any real number. In other words, the current episode deals with the method to change the basis for a power. The definition provided for instance serves as a means to define 2 raised to square root of 2, the provided expression is continuous in the exponent and makes use of the (natural) logarithm - the inverse function of the exponential function introduced in the previous episode.

In this episode we argue how and why we can devise an inverse function to the exponential function. Hence, we shall construct the logarithm and give precise reason why the logarithm exists and is indeed well-defined for any strictly positive real number. The existence part roots on the intermediate value theorem, the uniqueness part on the properties of the exponential function. The logarithm being the inverse of the exponential function is one of those functions that rather give the answer to a question (``To which power do I have to raise e to get a given number y?'') instead of being explicitly computable like the square or the reciprocal. 

In this episode we introduce a new concept regarding continuity, namely uniform continuity. For continuity, for given deviation of function values, the allowed deviation of corresponding pre-images depends on the point, where continuity is analysed. In contrast, for uniform continuity, the allowed deviation of pre-images can be chosen independently of the point considered and only depends on the initially allowed deviation of function values. There are examples that show that uniform continuity is strictly stronger than continuity. However, if a function is defined on a sequentially compact metric space, continuity is already enough to yield uniform continuity.

This episode is concerned with another invariance property continuous functions have. After having introduced and exemplified sequential compactness, we provide some intuition behind it. Then we prove that images of sequentially compact spaces under continuous maps are themselves sequentially compact. The immediate application to the particular case of functions mapping into the real numbers shows that continuous real-valued functions defined on sequentially compact spaces admit their supremum and infimum; that is, the maximum and the minimum of the image exists.

Picture: William Murphy from Dublin, Ireland, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons