CardioNerds co-founders Dr. Daniel Ambinder and Dr. Amit Goyal are joined by Dr. Spencer Weintraub, Chief Resident of Internal Medicine at Northwell Health, Dr. Michael Albosta, third-year Internal Medicine resident at the University of Miami, and Anna Biggins, Registered Dietitian Nutritionist at the Georgia Heart Institute. Expert commentary is provided by Dr. Zahid Ahmad, Associate Professor in the Division of Endocrinology at the University of Texas Southwestern. Together, they discuss a fascinating case involving a patient with a new diagnosis of hypertriglyceridemia. Episode audio was edited by CardioNerds Intern Student Dr. Pacey Wetstein.

A woman in her 30s with type 2 diabetes, HIV, and polycystic ovarian syndrome presented with one day of sharp epigastric pain, non-bloody vomiting, and a new lower extremity rash. She was diagnosed with hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis, necessitating insulin infusion and plasmapheresis.  

The CardioNerds discuss the pathophysiology of hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis, potential organic and iatrogenic causes, and the cardiovascular implications of triglyceride disorders. We explore differential diagnoses for cardiac and non-cardiac causes of epigastric pain, review acute and long-term management of hypertriglyceridemia, and discuss strategies for the management of the chylomicronemia syndrome, focusing on lifestyle changes and pharmacotherapy. 

This episode is part of a case reports series developed in collaboration with the National Lipid Association and their Lipid Scholarship Program, with mentorship from Dr. Daniel Soffer and Dr. Eugenia Gianos.

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Pearls - Hypertriglyceridemia

Cardiac sarcoidosis can present with a variety of symptoms, including arrhythmias, heart block, heart failure, or sudden cardiac death. The acute management of hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis involves prompt recognition and initiation of therapy to lower triglyceride levels using either plasmapheresis or intravenous insulin infusion +/- heparin infusion. Insulin infusion is used more commonly, while plasmapheresis is preferred in pregnancy.  

Medications such as fibrates and omega-3 fatty acids can be used to maintain long-term triglyceride reduction to prevent the recurrence of pancreatitis, especially in patients with persistent triglyceride elevation despite lifestyle modifications. Statins can be used in patients for ASCVD reduction in patients with a 10-year ASCVD risk > 5%, age > 40 years old, and diabetes or diabetes with end-organ damage or known atherosclerosis. Consider preferential use of icosapent ethyl as an omega-3 fatty acid for triglyceride lowering if the patients fit the populations that appeared to benefit in the REDUCE IT trial.  

Apply targeted dietary interventions within the context of an overall healthy dietary pattern, such as a Mediterranean or DASH diet. Limit full-fat dairy, fatty meats, refined starches, added sugars, and alcohol. Encourage high-fiber vegetables, whole fruits, low-fat or fat-free dairy, plant proteins, lean poultry, and fish. Pay special attention to the cooking oils to ensure the patient is not using palm oil, coconut oil, or butter when cooking. Instead, use liquid non-tropical plant oils. Initiate a very low-fat diet (< 5% of total daily calories from fat) for 1-4 weeks when TG levels are > 750 mg/dL. 

Recommend and encourage patients to exercise regularly, with a minimum goal of 150 minutes/week of moderate-intensity aerobic activity. If weight loss is required, aim for more than >225 - 250 minutes/week.  

Develop patient-centered and multidisciplinary strategies for preventing hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis by incorporating patient education on the importance of medication adherence, specialist follow-up, regular monitoring of triglyceride levels, and lifestyle modifications to maintain optimal lipid profiles and reduce the future risk of pancreatitis. 

Notes - Hypertriglyceridemia

Who is at risk for hypertriglyceridemia and what are the key pathophysiological mechanisms by which elevated triglycerides may lead to pancreatitis?  

The exact mechanism is not clear. The proposed mechanism is that when serum triglycerides exceed 1000 mg/dL, blood flow is impaired through the capillary beds supplying the pancreas, resulting in ischemia. The ischemic injury resulting from this disruption of microcirculation disrupts the acinar structure of pancreatic cells and exposes pancreatic enzymes to triglyceride-rich particles. This results in activation of enzymatic activity with degradation of the chylomicron-triglycerides particles, which causes inflammation, subsequently leading to hemorrhage, edema, and necrosis of the pancreatic tissue.  

Chylomicronemia syndrome can be multifactorial or familial. Familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS) is often discovered very early in life, and patients have a loss of function in one of the several genes involved in regulating triglyceride metabolism. These genes include LPL, APOC2, APOA5, LMF1, and GPIHBP1. 

Multifactorial chylomicronemia syndrome is the most common cause of chylomicronemia syndrome. It is usually the result of a clustering of genetic variants, including heterozygosity of one of the five genes previously mentioned, as well as more frequent variants with small effects in more than 40 additional genes that have been implicated. Having a genetic variant plus an aggravating factor will often exacerbate the metabolic defect and lead to chylomicronemia syndrome. There are many potential aggravating factors, but some of the more common ones include a diet high in refined sugars, heavy alcohol consumption, obesity with or without metabolic syndrome, medications, renal disease, HIV, and pregnancy.  

What are the acute treatment strategies for hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis, and how are they similar and different to treating pancreatitis from other etiologies?  

All patients should be assessed for hemodynamic compromise, the severity of illness with or without scoring systems, and end-organ damage to determine the need for intensive care resources. Initially, patients usually require aggressive fluid resuscitation and pain management, which are standard across all types of acute pancreatitis. Delayed fluid resuscitation has been associated with worse outcomes. Multiple trials have been performed evaluating the best amount of fluid. Although there is not an exact answer to this, as all patients are different, all patients should be resuscitated until euvolemic. The WATERFALL trial showed that administration of 10 mL/kg bolus followed by 1.5 mL/kg maintenance until the patient reaches euvolemia was a superior approach to more aggressive fluid resuscitation. A patient's volume status should be reassessed every 6 hours for 24 – 48 hours, and fluids should be discontinued once euvolemia has been achieved. There is no guideline consensus on the preferred analgesic management, but it is generally recommended to administer medication to mitigate symptoms of pain and nausea for all patients.  

For hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis, it is key to initiate fasting to decrease chylomicron production and further increasing triglyceride levels. Although historically, this was the same approach for other causes of pancreatitis, more recent data shows that early enteral feeding reduces the risk of complications such as pancreatic necrosis. However, these studies were not performed in patients with pancreatitis from hypertriglyceridemia and should not be extrapolated to this distinct population. Currently, it is recommended that patients be kept NPO until triglycerides are below 500 mg/dL, which is the point at which LPL activity becomes saturated. When feeding is initiated, it should be with a very low-fat diet with no refined carbohydrates.  

Hypertriglyceridemia differs from other causes of pancreatitis as the management is centered around the rapid reduction of triglyceride content in the blood. Generally, these patients are admitted to the intensive care unit to undergo either insulin infusion +/- heparin drip or plasmapheresis. Although there has never been a clinical trial comparing these two approaches, a recent comprehensive meta-analysis showed no significant difference in mortality or clinical outcomes. Insulin infusion had a lower number of deaths, but a higher rate of acute renal failure, hypoglycemia, and hypotension, neither of which reached statistical significance. Insulin is more commonly used and generally preferred given that it is more cost-effective, less invasive, and can have utility in treating underlying diabetes exacerbation, which is common amongst these patients. Insulin infusion works by increasing the activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL), resulting in increased clearance of chylomicron particles. Although in some countries, insulin is combined with heparin, given heparin's ability to increase LPL release, this is rarely done as heparin can deplete endothelial LPL, increase bleeding events, and potentially cause heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Plasmapheresis, on the other hand, works by removing the triglycerides directly from the bloodstream, which can rapidly reduce levels. It does require central venous access, which is more invasive. Plasmapheresis is preferred in pregnancy as data in case series supports it reduces the risk of a systemic inflammatory response.  

What are the proposed mechanisms by which high triglycerides may contribute to atherosclerosis?