In this episode of the 632nm podcast, we explore how 193nm lasers unexpectedly overtook x-ray approaches and reshaped semiconductor manufacturing. Physicist Mordechai Rothschild describes the breakthroughs that turned a once “impossible” technology into the mainstay of chip fabrication, including the discovery of specialized lenses, the invention of chemically amplified resists, and the game-changing flip to immersion lithography. We also hear candid insights on the race to push below 13.5 nanometers, where new ideas in plasma sources and advanced coatings might one day carry Moore’s Law even further.

Dr. Mordechai Rothschild is a leading physicist and technologist at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, serving as Principal Staff in the Advanced Technology Division. He has been instrumental in advancing micro- and nanoscale systems, with significant contributions to 193-nm photolithography—a technology critical to modern semiconductor manufacturing. His work has earned him the 2014 SPIE Frits Zernike Award and the 2015 Edwin H. Land Medal. With over 220 publications and 16 patents, Rothschild's research spans metamaterials, microfluidics, and nanofabrication. He holds a BS in physics from Bar-Ilan University and a PhD in optics from the University of Rochester.

01:22 Early Days and Technological Challenges
08:54 The Role of Photoresist in Lithography
19:39 The Rise of X-ray Lithography
25:52 Global Competition and Geopolitics
28:45 Challenges and Future of Lithography
44:33 Introduction to Excimer Lasers
47:54 Applications of 193nm Lasers
49:41 Development of Reliable Laser Sources
58:38 Lens Aging and Material Challenges
01:01:10 Exploring Alternative Materials
01:07:41 Liquid Immersion Lithography
01:15:21 Engineering Complex Lithography Systems
01:23:43 Immersion Lithography Insights
01:24:33 Prototype to Foundry Adoption Timeline
01:25:41 Challenges in EUV Development
01:32:24 Personal Journey to Lincoln Lab
01:38:59 Exploring Advanced Lithography
01:57:26 Future of Moore's Law and Lithography
02:06:40 Advice for Young Scientists

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In this episode, physicist Federico Capasso recounts his winding path from struggling undergrad to pioneering inventor of the quantum cascade laser. He reveals how openness, daring ideas, and the bottom-up ethos at Bell Labs led to breakthroughs that redefined semiconductor research.

Capasso also discusses the blurred lines between basic and applied science, the importance of nurturing curiosity, and the serendipitous moments that propelled his career. From avalanche photodiodes to metasurfaces to quantum biology, he offers a fascinating look at how big discoveries often begin with a simple spark of wonder.

Eli Yablonovitch shares how Thomas Edison's approach of requiring "a thousand failed discoveries for every one that works" shaped his scientific philosophy. From solar cells to semiconductor lasers to photonic crystals to cell phone antennas, Yablonovitch reveals how each invention evolved from identifying fundamental physics concepts that others overlooked. He explains how his light-trapping concept now used in every solar panel stemmed from thinking about statistical mechanics. His strained semiconductor laser design, which initially faced industry resistance, eventually became the standard in all laser pointers and DVDs. Throughout his career spanning Bell Labs, Exxon, and academia, Yablonovitch demonstrates that true innovation comes from understanding basic physics principles and having the courage to pursue ideas others dismiss as impossible.

Join the 632nm team as we sit down with Nobel laureate Dr. John Mather. From his childhood days of building radios and telescopes to leading NASA's groundbreaking COBE mission, learn how a spectacular failure during his PhD research unexpectedly paved the way for his Nobel Prize-winning work. And hear the story of how NASA took a chance on a 28-year-old scientist who would change our understanding of the universe.

Dr. Mather shares insights into the engineering marvels behind modern space telescopes, including the James Webb Telescope's ingenious cooling system and the concept behind hybrid ground-space observatories. Hear details about near-mission failures, midnight revelations that saved COBE, and the surprising connection between space telescopes and stealth fighter technology.
 

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Join the 632nm team as we sit down with Harvard Professor Avi Loeb, in this fascinating exploration of astronomy, alien life, and the intersection of science and politics. From discussing the mysterious interstellar object that changed astronomy to explaining why Mars might not be the best destination for human colonization, Loeb challenges conventional wisdom with evidence-based insights. His unique perspective, shaped by his journey from growing up on a farm in Israeli to becoming a leading Harvard scientist, reminds us to think from first principles about the universe’s biggest questions.

The conversation illuminates the stories behind groundbreaking scientific discoveries, including the work of overlooked pioneers in astronomy, and seriously explores the potential existence of extraterrestrial intelligence. Loeb shares his vision for the Galileo Project, discusses the search for alien artifacts on Earth, and explains why artificial intelligence might be crucial in solving the Fermi Paradox.

00:00 Introduction and Opening Thoughts
00:34 Avi Loeb's Journey and Achievements
01:15 Science vs. Politics
05:49 Early Life and Philosophical Influences
16:57 Astrophysics and the Search for Extraterrestrial Life
55:19 Breakthrough Initiatives: A Surreal Presentation
56:40 Stephen Hawking's Visit and Human Limitations
59:17 The Search for Intelligent Civilizations
01:02:09 The Future of Space Exploration
01:05:33 The Age of the Universe and Interstellar Objects
01:42:23 The Quest for Immortality: Leaving a Legacy
01:43:31 AI and Human Existence: A Philosophical Dive
01:45:57 Navigating Politics: A Scientist's Perspective
01:48:13 The Scientific Method: A Path to Truth
02:03:27 Galileo Project: Searching for Extraterrestrial Life
02:40:52 The Simplicity of Science
02:41:25 Exploring Oumuamua and the Galileo Project
02:45:24 The Quest for Interstellar Discoveries
02:48:35 The Origins of Life and the Universe
02:59:22 The Future of AI and Humanity

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In this episode, the 632nm team sits down with Dan Aronovich (Data Science Decoded Podcast) to explore predictions about technology and society, starting with MIT pioneer Norbert Wiener's remarkably prescient warnings about AI from 1948. His concerns about artificial systems misinterpreting human instructions mirror modern discussions about AI alignment, while his skepticism of social sciences raises important questions about the limitations of studying human behavior.

The conversation takes an unexpected turn as it delves into demographic forecasts that paint a striking picture of humanity's future. The discussion reveals how declining global fertility rates could lead to religious groups becoming demographically dominant, while technological advances might create a world populated by extremely long-lived humans augmented by robotics.

01:16 Exploring Norbert Wiener's Cybernetics
01:35 Main Claims of Cybernetics
03:14 Cybernetics in Different Cultures
04:06 Historical Context and AI Precursors
05:30 Wiener Filter and Signal Processing
10:16 Philosophical Insights and Social Implications
22:48 Analog vs Digital and Future of AI
31:56 Debunking Doom Predictions
32:13 AI and Digital Control
32:59 AI and Physical World Challenges
35:13 Future Societal Structures
37:58 Global Fertility Trends
42:45 AI in Military and Arms Race
47:15 AI Creativity and Hallucinations
52:53 Psychedelics and AI

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The 632nm team sat down with MIT professor Seth Lloyd for a mind-bending journey through quantum mechanics, information theory, and the early days of quantum computing. Lloyd shares fascinating stories from his pioneering work in quantum information, including how he nearly got expelled from his PhD program for pursuing what was then considered a "crazy" research direction. Through engaging examples and personal anecdotes, he explains why quantum mechanics is "irreducibly weird" and how information and entropy are fundamentally the same thing.

The conversation takes unexpected turns with remarkable stories about Stephen Hawking's quantum gravity lectures, Richard Feynman's three tricks that revolutionized physics, and epic MIT student pranks including the great Caltech cannon heist. Lloyd also tackles deep questions about consciousness, free will, and the computational nature of the universe, explaining why the universe itself may be its own most efficient simulation. His unique perspective as both a mechanical engineer and quantum physicist brings fresh insights to some of science's most profound mysteries.

00:00 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics and Philosophy
02:13 Academic Journey and Early Inspirations
05:26 Challenges and Breakthroughs in Quantum Information
11:17 Entropy, Information Theory, and the Second Law
25:33 Quantum Computing and Feynman's Hamiltonian
41:27 Discrete vs. Continuous Spectrums in Quantum Systems
42:39 Early Quantum Computing Breakthroughs
44:27 Building Quantum Computers: Techniques and Challenges
50:27 The Universe as a Quantum Computer
01:05:52 Quantum Machine Learning and Future Prospects
01:19:12 Navigating an Academic Family Background
01:19:50 Challenges in Quantum Information Career
01:24:32 Reflections on Harvard and MIT Experiences
01:27:01 Exploring Free Will and Consciousness
01:57:09 MIT Hacks and Anecdotes

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In this episode, the 632 team interviewed Nobel laureate Moungi Bawendi, revealing his serendipitous journey to the discovery and development of quantum dots. From a summer internship at Bell Labs to an expired bottle of chemicals that contained the perfect mixture, Bawendi shares how some of chemistry's biggest breakthroughs came from unexpected places. He draws remarkable connections between medieval stained glass artisans and modern nanotechnology, explaining how thousand-year-old techniques unknowingly pioneered the manipulation of nanoparticles.

The conversation takes us through the evolution of quantum dots from laboratory curiosity to revolutionary technology, now powering millions of modern TV displays. Bawendi offers candid insights into the challenges of modern scientific research funding, even at prestigious institutions like MIT, while discussing how the path from discovery to real-world impact still takes decades despite our fast-paced digital era.

01:04 Understanding Quantum Dots
02:41 The Birth of Quantum Dots
03:49 Discoveries and Career Choices
09:05 The Evolution of Nanotechnology
11:02 The Chemistry Behind Nanocrystals
50:58 Bulk Phosphine and Cost Efficiency
53:56 Timeline of Quantum Dot Research
01:12:46 MRI Contrast Agents and Iron Oxide
01:17:14 Funding and Future of Scientific Research

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In this captivating episode, we explore how Mark Bear's personal experience with congenital nystagmus sparked a revolutionary career in neuroscience. Mark shares his remarkable journey from struggling with a visual impairment to making groundbreaking discoveries about how the brain processes visual information, including the identification of a previously unknown neural pathway discovered during his undergraduate years.

The conversation delves deep into the fascinating mechanics of human vision, explaining how our brains transform input from two separate eyes into one unified visual experience. Perhaps most intriguingly, Mark reveals critical insights about the brain's developmental windows, particularly how infants must learn to see during their first year of life and why this ability has a strict deadline around age seven. This episode offers a unique blend of personal narrative and cutting-edge neuroscience, illuminating the remarkable plasticity of the human brain and the time-sensitive nature of neural development.

02:18 Discovering the Visual Cortex
06:58 Understanding Vision and Visual Processing
14:47 Exploring Plasticity in the Visual System
29:12 The Role of Sleep and Hallucinations in Vision
34:07 Memory, Plasticity, and Neuromodulation
41:47 Experience-Dependent Plasticity and Learning
48:39 Evolutionary Insights from Primate and Cat Visual Systems
49:37 Unique Features of Mouse Visual System
50:52 Visual Evoked Potentials: Techniques and Discoveries
53:19 Stimulus Selective Response Plasticity
54:38 Behavioral and Electrophysiological Correlates of Learning
01:02:03 Declarative vs. Procedural Memory
01:03:54 Hippocampus and Memory Storage
01:18:55 Challenges and Future Directions in Neuroscience

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In this eye-opening episode, former Zapata Computing CEO Yudong Chen reveals the sobering truth about quantum computing's potential impact on drug discovery and the industry's inflated market expectations. Chen explains why even with perfect quantum chemistry calculations, the business case for quantum computing in pharmaceuticals falls dramatically short of the billions being invested, with a total addressable market of only around $100M.

The conversation takes fascinating turns as Chen shares the unusual origin story of Zapata Computing, named after Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, and traces the company's journey from quantum computing to AI. He provides crucial insights into the field's future, discussing the emerging quantum winter and why government funding, rather than venture capital, may be the path forward. The episode concludes with Chen's compelling vision for advancing quantum computing through focused application development and the need for standardized infrastructure.

02:19 The Origin Story of Zapata Computing
04:27 Early Challenges and Realizations in Quantum Chemistry
06:22 Exploring Optimization and Machine Learning
15:46 Understanding Variational Quantum Algorithms
29:11 Quantum Computing in Drug Discovery and Industry
34:33 Economic Impact and Future of Quantum Computing
01:01:35 Classical Chips vs Quantum Devices
01:19:40 Reflections on Zapata's IPO and Market Dynamics
01:24:12 Future of Quantum Computing and Personal Insights

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WEBSITE: https://www.632nm.com