A History of Italy

So, over the years perhaps my greatest pleasure in interacting with you, my dear listener, has been the times someone has been to Italy and stopped off to see me. Actually, my star actress Lucy believes they probably come to see her, but that's part of the family debate.

Anyway, I thought, why not make things official and see if we can't get together in a bigger group and enjoy not just a day, but a whole 9 days.

So, that is why, I am happily and enthusiastically announcing:

The April 2026 AHOI Grand TOUR!

An actual, proper, get-on-a-plane-and-come-to-Italy tour. And before you say "oh lovely, a bus trip to Rome with someone's Auntie Margherita" — no. Absolutely not. This is something altogether more interesting.

It's called **"In the Footsteps of Machiavelli"**, commemorating the 500th anniversary of the death of the great diplomat and writer.

it runs from the **10th to the 18th of April 2027**, and it is nine days of what I can only describe as the Renaissance at its most gloriously unhinged.

We start in **Florence** — naturally — where we'll visit Machiavelli's own tomb at Santa Croce and spend quality time at Palazzo Vecchio, the very building where the man himself once schemed for the Florentine Republic. Then we head to **Rimini**, home of Sigismondo Malatesta, the Renaissance lord so spectacularly ruthless that Machiavelli used him as a cautionary example *and* a role model, depending on the chapter.

From there, **Urbino** — the court of Federico da Montefeltro, arguably the most sophisticated man of the fifteenth century and the inspiration for every "enlightened ruler" Machiavelli ever wrote about. We pop into **San Marino** — the world's oldest republic, which has frankly been getting away with this claim for seventeen centuries and I respect that enormously.

Then it's **Modena**, where we make a private visit to the world's oldest producer of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena — a substance so painstakingly made that it takes up to 25 years to reach its finest form. I find this deeply relatable, almost a decade into a podcast with no end in site.

**Parma** gives us Correggio's astonishing dome fresco — Titian apparently said if it were turned upside down and filled with gold it still wouldn't be worth enough. And then a visit to a Parmigiano Reggiano dairy, because the Renaissance was also about cheese, and don't let anyone tell you otherwise.

We finish in **Mantua**, seat of the Gonzaga, where Andrea Mantegna painted the Camera degli Sposi — a ceiling fresco so audaciously clever it basically invented the next two hundred years of European art — before ending our journey in **Bergamo**, a city Le Corbusier called home to the most beautiful square in the world, which is quite a thing to say for a man who spent most of his career pouring concrete.

Eight nights in four-star hotels. Three private dinners. All your lunches, admissions, and an expert English-speaking guide at every stop.

Prices start from **€3,450 per person** with the early bird discount — and there's a single room option too, for those of you who've earned the right to a bed to yourselves.

I'll be there with you the whole way, talking too much about people who have been dead for five hundred years, which is — as you know — my speciality.

Details and booking are in the show notes. Places are limited, so do have a look sooner rather than later.

See link for more details

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Forget the whip and the fedora — the real story of archaeology is a 500-year glow-up from rich-guy hobbyism to laser-equipped aircraft revealing lost cities. In this episode, we trace how archaeology (from the Greek for "study of the past") evolved from Renaissance collectors chasing ancient coins for prestige, into a rigorous science built on stratigraphy, typology, and hard chemistry.

We start with 14th-century Italy, where Petrarch and Boccaccio kick off the antiquarian craze, and traveling collector Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli sketches the Acropolis like a Renaissance travel blogger. Popes get in on it too — Sixtus IV and Julius II found some of the first antiquities museums, scoring a win with the discovery of the Laocoön.

Then method starts to show up: John Aubrey gives us the chrono-typological method(dating objects by their style), and Olof Rudbeck gives us the stratigraphic method — the single most important idea in the field, based on reading the layers (strata) of the earth like a timeline. The excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum turn archaeology into a public obsession, leading to the founding of the British Museum and the Louvre, and the first university chairs in the discipline (Leiden, 1818; Berlin, 1823).

The 1800s deliver the big wins: Champollion cracks Egyptian hieroglyphics via the Rosetta Stone, Christian Jürgensen Thomsen formalizes the Three-Age System(Stone, Bronze, Iron), Heinrich Schliemann excavates Troyand Mycenae, and Giuseppe Fiorelli invents the haunting plaster-cast technique at Pompeii.

Finally, we jump into the modern era of archaeometry — where archaeology merges with hard science. We cover radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, thermoluminescence, and dendrochronology, then go full sci-fi with LiDAR, the laser-mapping tech that's been uncovering entire lost Maya cities from the air. We close with a quick look at how fields like ethnoarchaeology, landscape archaeology, and modern heritage law (Italy's Codice dei Beni Culturali) keep the discipline evolving today.

• Archaeology — from Greek archaiologia, "study/discourse of the past"; the reconstruction of past societies through analysis of material remains
• Direct sources vs. indirect sources — physical remains (artifacts, ecofacts) vs. written/pictorial accounts
• Artifacts / Ecofacts — human-made objects vs. natural remains (bones, seeds, pollen) that reveal human-environment relationships
• Petrarch & Boccaccio — 14th-century writers who popularized collecting ancient coins and inscriptions
• Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli (Cyriac of Ancona) — early antiquarian traveler who documented the Acropolis and classical ruins
• Flavio Biondo — pioneer of topographic historiography (using landscape/ruins to reconstruct history)
• Sixtus IV / Julius II — Popes who founded early antiquities museums on the Capitoline Hill and in the Vatican
• Laocoön — famous marble sculpture discovered in 1506, entered the Vatican collection
• Georgius Agricola — studied ancient stone tools; considered a father of modern geology
• Michele Mercati — early theorist of a sequence in weapon/tool materials (proto Three-Age thinking)
• Pirro Ligorio — 16th-century antiquarian who conducted large-scale excavation at Villa Tivoli
• Jacob Spon — French antiquarian credited with introducing the term "archaeologia"
• Francesco Bianchini — applied philological (text-analysis) methods to interpreting ancient images
• John Aubrey — developed the chrono-typological method (dating by stylistic sequence)
• Olof Rudbeck — developed the stratigraphic method (dating by layers of earth)
• Herculaneum & Pompeii — Roman cities buried by Vesuvius; their excavation reignited public fascination with antiquity
• British Museum / Louvre — major museums founded on the antiquities craze
• First university chairs in archaeology — Leiden (1818), Berlin (1823)
• Jean-François Champollion — decoded Egyptian hieroglyphics using the Rosetta Stone
• Christian Jürgensen Thomsen — formalized the Three-Age System (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age)
• Heinrich Schliemann — excavated Troy and Mycenae, chasing Homeric legend
• Giuseppe Fiorelli — introduced plaster-cast technique to preserve body impressions at Pompeii
• Archaeometry — the use of scientific/technical methods (physics, chemistry) to analyze archaeological material
• Radiocarbon dating (Carbon-14) — dates organic material up to ~50,000 years via radioactive decay
• Potassium-Argon dating — dates much older, often volcanic, material (40,000+ years)
• Thermoluminescence — dates ceramics by measuring energy released since last firing
• Dendrochronology — dating via tree-ring pattern matching
• Magnetometry / Geoelectric prospection / Ground-penetrating radar — non-invasive methods for detecting buried structures
• LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) — laser-based aerial mapping technology, used to discover buried/hidden sites through dense vegetation
• Landscape archaeology — study of whole regions and long-term human-environment relationships
• Ethnoarchaeology — studying living traditional communities (e.g., Lewis Binford's work) to interpret ancient material culture
• Archaeobotany / Archaeozoology — study of ancient plant and animal remains
• Codice dei Beni Culturali — Italy's modern legal code governing cultural heritage and landscape protection

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We speak with Margherita Berti, founder of Italian Matters, an online Italian language school that helps adult learners build confidence and make consistent progress in Italian through a practical, structured approach.

In this conversation, she shares effective learning strategies, common mistakes to avoid, and the habits, resources, and mindset that can help learners speak Italian.

To learn more about her upcoming book: https://italianmatters.com/book/

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Just a quick message to let you know that the podcast may be slowing down a bit over the next month or so as i am studying for the exam to become a recognised Italian tour guide.

Also to give you a little hint for an upcoming surprise...

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In this episode of A History of Italy, we explore the extraordinary life of Isabella d’Este, one of the most influential women of the Italian Renaissance and arguably the closest thing the 15th and 16th centuries had to a modern celebrity influencer.

Born into the powerful House of Este in Ferrara and married into the Gonzaga dynasty of Mantua, Isabella navigated the violent and unstable political world of Renaissance Italy with intelligence, diplomacy and cultural sophistication. While others became famous through warfare or scandal, Isabella built her power through patronage, image, political skill and culture.

This episode follows her rise from highly educated noblewoman to ruler, diplomat, collector, political operator and cultural icon during the chaotic era of the Italian Wars. Along the way we encounter figures such as Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea Mantegna, Titian, Lucrezia Borgia, Charles V, and the terrifying Landsknechts who devastated Italy during the Sack of Rome in 1527.

• The life and career of Isabella d’Este
• Why she became known as “The First Lady of the Renaissance”
• The political and cultural world of Renaissance courts
• The role of noblewomen in Renaissance diplomacy and governance

• Isabella’s relationships with:
• Leonardo da Vinci
• Andrea Mantegna
• Titian
• The importance of her famous studiolo
• Collecting antiquities, manuscripts and Renaissance art
• Why culture itself was political power in Renaissance Italy

• Mantua during the chaos of the Italian Wars
• The War of the League of Cambrai
• The capture of Francesco Gonzaga
• Diplomacy between Venice, France, the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire
• The devastation of Italy by foreign armies

• Isabella as a Renaissance trendsetter and influencer
• Fashion, jewellery and courtly identity
• How Renaissance rulers carefully curated public image
• The politics of appearance in early modern Italy

• Isabella’s complicated relationship with Lucrezia Borgia
• Court gossip, jealousy and dynastic politics
• Her rivalry with her sister Beatrice d’Este
• Marriage, infidelity and political necessity in Renaissance noble life

• Isabella’s role during the Sack of Rome
• Negotiating with imperial troops and Landsknechts
• Turning Palazzo Colonna into a refuge during the destruction of the city
• How the crisis strengthened her international reputation

• Women and power in Renaissance Italy
• Renaissance patronage
• Political image-making
• Court culture
• Diplomacy and survival
• Art as propaganda
• The decline of Italian political independence
• Prestige and soft power before modern media

Isabella d’Este was far more than a collector of beautiful things. She understood something remarkably modern: prestige itself could be power.

Through diplomacy, cultural influence, strategic marriages and relentless image management, she became one of the defining figures of the Renaissance. Her court at Mantua became a centre of art, literature and politics, while her letters — more than 30,000 survive today — provide historians with one of the richest windows into Renaissance Italy.

At the same time, her story also reflects the contradictions of the Renaissance itself: dazzling artistic achievement unfolding amid political instability, warfare and the gradual loss of Italian independence to foreign powers.

Isabella d’Este, Italian Renaissance, Renaissance Italy, Mantua, House of Este, Gonzaga family, Lucrezia Borgia, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Andrea Mantegna, Italian Wars, Sack of Rome 1527, Renaissance women, Renaissance art patronage, women in history, Renaissance courts, history podcast, Italian history podcast, Mantua history, Renaissance patronage

If you enjoyed this episode, you may also like:

• Episodes on the Italian Wars
• The rise of the Borgia family
• Episodes about Venice, Florence and Milan
• The story of the Sack of Rome
• The lives of powerful Renaissance women

Explore more at A History of Italy

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We are opening a new section of the podcast website with contributions from you, dear listener!

You can send in articles, thoughts, family stories and so on.

They should be:

Pertinent to Italy, trips to Italy Italian culture and history or Italians abroad.

Not contain vulgarity /unless required for the story of quoted) hate speech, promote gambling and so on

Contain references to sources

You can also add a quick bio if you like

[email protected]

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When the president of the brand new Republic of Italy, Luigi Einaudi decides in 1946 he wants to exercise his right to select 5 illustrious Italians to be senators for life, one of his choices falls on world famous conductor Arturo Toscanini. The candidates, however, must have a spotless reputation and the check into the conductors life soon reveals that he was present in the small sleepy Tuscan of Piazze at the time of an infamous murder, that of a famous doctor, Alberto Rinaldi.

Retired Colonel Luigi Mari is assigned to investigate and soon discovers that the truth to the murder and subseuiqnt trial is very different from the official story and may go to the very top of the Fascist Regime.

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The 16th century didn’t start kindly for the Republic of Venice—but if history has taught us anything, it’s that Venice had a knack for bouncing back.

In this episode, we follow Venice from near-collapse during the War of the League of Cambrai through its remarkable recovery by 1516. But survival came at a cost: a shifting role in European trade, rising global powers, and increasingly complex political alliances.

As Venice navigates between France, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire, we explore how the Republic relied on its traditional strengths—caution, pragmatism, and opportunism—to stay afloat in a rapidly changing world.

• How the League of Cambrai nearly destroyed Venice
• The impact of the 1514 Rialto fire on the city’s economy
• Why Venice created the Jewish Ghetto in 1516
• The Republic’s struggle to adapt to new Atlantic trade routes
• The delicate balancing act between France, Spain, and the Empire
• Key figures like Andrea Gritti and their influence on policy
• Venice’s cultural flourishing despite political uncertainty
• The growing threat of the Ottoman Empire
• The disastrous Battle of Preveza (1538) and its aftermath
• Why Venice’s setbacks never quite meant defeat

The War of the League of Cambrai pushed Venice to the brink, stripping it of mainland territories and exposing its vulnerabilities. Add to that the devastating Rialto fire of 1514, and the situation looked bleak.

Yet by 1516, with the Treaty of Noyon, Venice had regained much of what it lost—proving its resilience and strategic importance in European politics.

The recovery triggered internal reflection. Some blamed decadence among the nobility, others scapegoated minorities—leading to the establishment of the Jewish Ghetto in 1516.

Meanwhile, Venice was no longer the unrivaled trade hub it once was. New Atlantic powers were rising, and Venetian attempts to break into these routes never fully took off.

Venice found itself caught between major powers:

• France, a traditional ally
• Charles V, ruler of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire
• The ever-present Ottoman Empire

The Republic constantly shifted alliances to maintain independence, often acting with calculated opportunism—sometimes even turning on allies when it suited their interests.

Under Doge Andrea Gritti, Venice experienced a cultural and intellectual flourishing:

• Expansion of printing and literature
• Contributions from figures like Pietro Bembo and Pietro Aretino
• Architectural developments shaping the Venice we recognize today

All this despite financial strain and political instability.

By the 1530s, the Ottoman Empire had become a central player in Italian politics, often allied with France.

Venice tried to remain neutral—maintaining trade relations while avoiding conflict—but this balancing act couldn’t last forever.

A Holy League formed to challenge Ottoman naval power, including Venice, Spain, the Papacy, Genoa, and the Knights of Malta.

The result? A crushing defeat at Preveza.

Venice lost ships, territory, and was forced to pay heavy reparations in the peace treaty of 1540—a major humiliation.

If there’s one theme that defines Venice, it’s resilience.

Time and again, the Republic absorbed shocks, adapted, and endured. Even after Preveza, Venice would regroup—waiting patiently for its next opportunity.

And that opportunity would come later in the century… at the Battle of Lepanto.

If you’re visiting Venice, don’t miss the historic Jewish Ghetto, a key site from this episode—and part of the city’s layered and complex story.

If you enjoyed this episode, be sure to follow the podcast and share it with fellow history lovers!

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Here are your show notes, in the same structured style and tone as before:

Link to Trentino tour: https://voicemap.me/tour/trento/italy-s-gateway-to-europe-from-medieval-to-modern-trento

In 1525, revolutionary ideas inspired by the Protestant Reformation spread from Germany into the Alpine valleys of Trentino. What followed was a dramatic — if short-lived — uprising of peasants against nobles and clergy.

In this episode, we explore how social tensions, natural disasters, and religious reform combined to ignite rebellion in the region, how leaders like Michael Gaismair attempted to reshape society, and how the revolt was ultimately crushed through a mixture of negotiation, deception, and force.

The spark came from the wider upheaval known as the German Peasants’ War:

• Inspired by the teachings of Martin Luther
• Led in part by the radical preacher Thomas Müntzer
• Peasants demanded:
• Social equality
• Relief from feudal oppression
• Religious reform

Although initially sympathetic, Luther ultimately sided with the authorities, condemning the revolt.

The rebellion spread into the Alpine region of:

• Trentino
• South Tyrol

Tensions were already high due to:

• Passage of unruly mercenary troops (Landsknechts)
• Natural disasters (floods and a major earthquake in 1521)
• Increasing restrictions imposed by nobles:
• Limits on hunting and water use
• Even bans on owning large dogs

This was not the first uprising in the region:

• In 1407, Rodolfo Belenzani led a revolt
• He forced concessions from the prince-bishop George of Liechtenstein
• However, the rebellion collapsed when Frederick IV of Austria sided with the bishop

Despite its failure, the revolt left a legacy:

• Establishment of a council of elders
• Greater local autonomy in Trento

In 1525, the rebellion developed differently across the region:

• Northern areas (Tyrol/Brixen):
• Unified under Michael Gaismair
• Southern areas (Trento):
• More fragmented
• Lacked strong central leadership

At the center of events was Bernardo Clesio:

• A highly educated and politically skilled figure
• Loyal to both the Pope and Emperor
• Later made cardinal in 1530

When unrest broke out:

• He initially returned to assess the situation
• Then withdrew to the fortified Rocca di Riva
• Left governance in the hands of:
• Francesco Castellalto
• Georg von Frundsberg

After the bishop’s departure:

• Popular unrest erupted on 16 May 1525
• Clerical properties were attacked

A temporary compromise followed:

• Creation of a proto-communal government:
• 16 representatives of the people
• 2 consuls (linked to episcopal authority)

However:

• Internal divisions weakened the movement
• Suspicion of the consuls undermined unity

At a diet in Innsbruck, rebel leaders presented radical proposals:

Known as the Tiroler Landesordnung, they included:

• Lower rents and economic reforms
• Social welfare for the poor and abandoned children
• Nationalisation of mines
• Expansion of agriculture
• Regulation of trade
• Universal education
• A democratic republic with elected officials
• A return to a “pure” interpretation of the Gospel

These ideas were remarkably forward-thinking for the time.

The negotiations were ultimately a ruse:

• Authorities used talks to buy time
• News arrived that the German revolt had been crushed

Key acts of repression followed:

• Archduke Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor had Gaismair arrested
• Michael Gaismair later escaped but was assassinated in 1532

Meanwhile, Clesio orchestrated the:

• Rebel leaders invited to Trento
• Arrested and executed during negotiations

The rebellion’s final act:

• A coordinated peasant attack on Trento
• Planned from multiple valleys

Initial success:

• Aqueducts cut
• Water supply disrupted

However:

• Poor coordination
• Fake news of an approaching imperial army
• Many rebels deserted

The siege lasted only three days.

Following the collapse:

• Rebel leaders:
• Arrested
• Tortured
• Executed
• Entire families sometimes punished
• Villages fined or rewarded based on loyalty
• Some middle-class supporters elevated to nobility

Consequences:

• Rise in banditry and social instability
• Limited reforms for peasants
• Reinforcement of elite control

Despite the repression, Bernardo Clesio left a lasting mark:

• Introduced a legal code in 1528
• Promoted Renaissance culture in Trento
• Associated with Erasmus of Rotterdam

He died in 1539 during a banquet celebrating his appointment as bishop of Brixen.

The Rustic War of Trentino ultimately failed:

• The revolutionary vision of the peasants was crushed
• Only minor concessions were achieved
• Feudal structures remained largely intact

It would take centuries before similar social challenges would re-emerge in the region.

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Continuing our tour of the Italian peninsula in the early 1500s, we move north from the Kingdom of Naples, through the Papal States and Tuscany, across the Apennines, past Genoa, and into what is today the region of Piedmont.

In this episode we explore the key political players in the region — the Marquisate of Saluzzo, the Marquisate of Monferrato, and above all the Duchy of Savoy.

Once an expanding Alpine power controlling vital mountain passes, Savoy would find itself caught between the ambitions of France and the Habsburg Empire during the Italian Wars. The result was a dramatic collapse that nearly erased the duchy entirely — setting the stage for the unexpected rise of a remarkable new duke.

1. Piedmont today is one of Italy’s 20 regions and is divided into several provinces.
2. In the early 1500s, however, its territories were divided among multiple states, including:
3. The Marquisate of Saluzzo
4. The Marquisate of Monferrato
5. The Duchy of Savoy
6. Some areas, such as Novara, actually belonged to the Duchy of Milan at the time.

Strategically located near the Alpine passes, Piedmont became a crucial corridor during the Italian Wars, especially for French armies entering Italy.

1. Saluzzo maintained strong ties with France.
2. Its influence declined after the death of Marquis Michele Antonio, who was killed fighting for the French in southern Italy.
3. By 1548, the territory would be absorbed by France.
4. When the French were later expelled in 1601, Saluzzo became part of the Duchy of Savoy.

The region’s importance stemmed from geography:

1. France needed control of Alpine routes to access Italy.
2. Spain and the Holy Roman Empire sought to block those routes.
3. Control of Piedmont also offered Charles V a communications corridor between Spain and his northern European territories.

As a result, Piedmont became a constant battlefield for roaming armies and shifting alliances.

During this period, larger European monarchies were becoming increasingly centralized and powerful:

1. Expanding bureaucracies and legal systems strengthened state control.
2. Universities produced growing administrative classes.
3. The gradual separation of church and state helped consolidate royal authority.

Compared to these emerging powers, many Italian states — including Savoy, Genoa, Venice, and the Papal States — struggled to keep pace politically and militarily.

Reform efforts had begun earlier under Amedeo VIII, who:

1. Elevated Savoy from a county to a duchy.
2. Later abdicated to become Antipope Felix V.

However, after his abdication in 1440, a series of weaker rulers failed to continue his reforms.

A later attempt at modernization came under Philip II “the Fair”, assisted by his politically capable half-brother René “the Great Bastard.”

René sought administrative reform and arranged a politically significant marriage linking Savoy to the Habsburg dynasty, but his efforts ultimately stalled.

The long reign of Charles II (1504–1553) marked a turning point for the duchy — unfortunately for the worse.

Although remembered as “Charles the Good,” the nickname reflected mildness rather than competence.

His rule was characterized by:

1. Indecisiveness
2. Poor diplomacy
3. Inability to balance relations between France and the Empire

He even failed to attend the coronations of Francis I of France and Charles V, missing crucial opportunities for diplomacy.

Savoy’s problems mounted quickly:

1. In 1508, Charles paid off invading Swiss troops rather than confronting them.
2. The city of Fribourg broke away from Savoyard influence.
3. The duchy’s economy was weak and dependent on taxation and donations.

When the Estates General met in 1517 and 1520, they refused financial support, leaving Charles unable to maintain a strong army.

Despite claiming neutrality, Savoy increasingly leaned toward Charles V and the Habsburg Empire, influenced in part by the politically capable Duchess Beatrice of Portugal, sister of the empress.

This alignment initially paid off:

1. After the Battle of Pavia (1525), Savoy received territories in France.

But the alliance also brought problems:

1. Imperial troops flooded the duchy.
2. In 1526, a rebellion in Turin killed around 200 Spanish soldiers.

Savoy briefly returned to the French camp during the League of Cognac, before once again siding with Charles V.

The dangers of Savoy’s shifting loyalties became clear when Francis I launched another campaign to seize Milan in 1536.

Viewing Savoy as hostile, the French invaded:

1. Savoyard forces offered little resistance.
2. Turin was captured.
3. Duke Charles fled to Vercelli.

By the Peace of Crépy (1544):

1. Savoy had lost most of its territory.
2. Lands north of the Alps were gone.
3. Much of Piedmont, including Turin, was occupied.

A state that had expanded steadily for over four centuries — from Umberto Biancamano to Amedeo VIII — had nearly disappeared in less than a century.

What remained of Savoy passed to Emanuele Filiberto, the 25-year-old son of Charles II.

If the dynasty was to survive, he would have to reverse decades of decline.

History suggests he might succeed.

In Turin’s Piazza San Carlo, an equestrian statue commemorates his victory over the French at the Battle of St. Quentin — a reminder that Savoy’s story was far from over.

With Savoy nearly destroyed and the balance of power in northern Italy shifting once again, the stage is set for the rise of Emanuele Filiberto — a ruler determined to reclaim his dynasty’s lost fortunes.

And as we will see, his efforts would eventually help place the House of Savoy on the long road toward becoming the kings of Italy.

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