At the close of the 19th century, the Akimel O’odham and the Maricopa were in dire straights, victims of water theft upstream. But, at the same time, a new idea was starting to gain popularity - reclamation.

At the dawn of the 19th century, the Akimel O’odham had it all - a reliable water source, rich farmland, a thriving trade empire, and good relations with everyone passing through Arizona. Little did they suspect that it would all disappear in 70 years, just like the river they were named after.

As the 1900s dawned, Arizona felt it was ready to become a full-fledged state. What followed was an 11-year campaign to convince the rest of the country. But the first part of that was the territory fighting to defeat an idea that, for most, was even worse than not becoming a state.

In 1893, the Phoenix Indian School set up its outing system, directly inspired by Pratt’s program at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The Phoenix system was destined to become the second largest in the nation, but from the beginning it was a very different animal than Pratt’s.

Amerindian students who were forced to attend the Phoenix Indian School at the turn of the 20th century found themselves in a hostile alien environment that took a toll mentally, emotionally, and physically.

In 1880s, the U.S. government embarked on a course of cultural genocide against the Amerindians. Their weapon of choice of was a rigorous education system and one of their many battlegrounds turned out to be Phoenix.

As economic and political forces transformed the border, new social dynamics began to emerge. This meant anything from a spirit of binational cooperation to an “us versus them” mentality, which fell along both ethnic and class lines. We now need to examine the two different things Arizonans meant when they said “Mexican.”

The economic forces transforming Sonora and the rest of northern Mexico also created complex issues that we still grapple with today and something integral to the state - border towns.

In 1876 a new regime came to power in Mexico that aimed to industrialize by inviting American businesses to invest in the country. Up in Sonora, that meant an increase in three things: Railroads, mining, and American influence.

Arizona’s frontier journalists really were a group of dogs trying to snatch up the same bone. And when the other dogs got too close to that bone, they were liable to bite.