Chemistry Connections

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of BatteriesEpisode #8  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Brando and Kai and I am your host for episode #8 called the chemistry of batteries?  Today we will be discussing what are batteries, the different types of batteries, and the chemistry behind them. 

Segment 1: Introduction to Batteries

1. History of Batteries
2. Benjamin Franklin and his charged glass plates
3. Voltaic Pile
4. To cell battery technology

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind BATTERIES

1. Explain the two cell battery system
2. General description of what a battery is (cells, cathode where electrons are produced, anode where electrons are gained, redox reaction that takes place, one half reaction in one cell, a different half reaction in another cell)
3. Commercial types:
4. Alkaline batteries
5. Are commonly used in household items like remote controls and flashlights, rely on the chemical reaction between zinc (Zn) and manganese dioxide (MnO₂).
6. Anode reaction: ZnZn2++2e-
7. Cathode reaction: 2MnO+2H2O+2e-2MnO(OH)+2OH-
8. Overall reaction: Zn+2MnO+2H2O+2e-Zn2++2e-
9. Lithium-Ion batteries
10. Are prevalent in portable electronics and electric vehicles due to their high energy density. The fundamental reactions involve lithium ions (Li⁺) moving between the anode and cathode through an electrolyte.
11. Anode reaction: LiC66C+Li++e-
12. Cathode reaction: CoO2+Li++e-LiCoO2
13. Overall reaction: LiC6+Li+CoO26C+LiCoO2
14. Lead-Acid batteries
15. Are commonly used in automotive applications due to their ability to deliver high surge currents. The reactions involve lead (Pb), lead dioxide (PbO₂), and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
16. Anode reaction: Pb+SO4-2PbSO4+2H2O
17. Cathode reaction: PbO2+4H++SO4-2+2e-PbSO4+2H2O
18. Overall reaction: Pb+PbO2+2H2SO42PbSO4+2H2O
19. Experimental/advanced types:
20. Solid-State Batteries
21. Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
22. Graphene and Silicon Anode Batteries

Segment 3: Personal Connections

1. We like robotics
2. In FRC robotics, we use Lead acid batteries, which are big and bulky because they hold a lot of charge, but they are quite heavy
3. In Robocup, a tournament we are participating in this year, we used lithium polymer batteries, which is LiPo for short. You see this all around in RC cars, and recreational vehicles

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections.   For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here.  Make sure they are linked.  Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

chem.libretexts

Wikipedia

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of GolfEpisode #_7_  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Christian Mayer and my name is AJ Yadamiec and we are your hosts for episode #7 called The 19th Hole Today I/we will be discussing the chemistry of golf.

Segment 1: Introduction to Golf. Clubs and Balls. 

• For those of you not familiar with golf, the objective of the game is to get a little ball into a hole far away by hitting it with your clubs in as few shots as possible. A round of golf consists of 18 holes. Each hole has a “par” or number of strokes typically taken to get it in the hole. The par for the average round of golf is 72, but can be 71 or 70 depending on the course. A golfer carries around with them a bag of clubs, each with a different purpose and distance capable of hitting the ball. On the tee box, which is where the hole starts, golfers will typically use a driver or a wood in order to get maximum distance on their first shot. From there, depending on the distance to the hole, the golfer will hit an iron or wedge to try and get on the green, which is the shortly cut area of grass on which the hole lies. Once on the green, the golfer will use their putter, an unlofted and usually shorter club, to putt the ball into the hole.
• Each club is made up of two parts, the shaft and the club head. A different material is used for the heads between the three types of clubs, with lightness being preferred for the driver in order to achieve a high swing speed, strength is favored in iron materials to add power to the shot, while a heavier material is preferable for the putter for greater control. 

Segment 4: Personal Connections

We are interested in this topic because we both like to golf. (Christian) I was on the golf team for 4 years in high school. I am a 10 handicap, which means on a par 72 golf course, I would shoot around an 82. My favorite club I have is my 3 wood. It has a graphite shaft with a stainless steel club face with a 17-4 stainless steel club head. I mainly just play for fun. (AJ) I just got into golf a year ago and am not that good. I enjoy golfing though very much. I like to play scramble, with a partner and my friend and I usually shoot around 100 on a par 72 golf course which is pretty poor. My favorite club to use is the 3 wood. 

• Now that we’ve gotten a basic understanding of golf, we're gonna play a theoretical hole with you. While we play we will dive into the chemistry behind the sport. 

Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind BALLS 

You take out your golf ball, let’s take the top of the line Titleist ball, the Pro V1. What seems like a very simple dimpled white object at first glance has been engineered meticulously to allow for the perfect amount of distance, control, and spin on every shot. 

• Golf balls consist of three main layers, the Core, the Mantle, and the Cover. Golf Ball manufacturers change these three parts to increased distance, increased control and increased feel. This often is referred to in golf as initial velocity, spin rate, and compression. The core is where energy is stored that will be released on impact of the golf club. Synthetic rubbers infused with polymers are the modern material for cores of golf balls. These cores are made up of long carbon chains that can be compressed and released which stores energy and releases energy. 
• The mantle of the golf balls are made of ionomers. Ionomers are similar to polymers, in that they are long chains of molecules covalently bonded together. However, ionomers contain both neutral and ionized molecules in its chain, though no more than 15% of the units in the ionomer chain are ionized. Ionomers have viscous properties because the non-polar pieces of the polymer backbone are not energetically compatible with the polar ionic groups., and are used for the mantle to reduce some of the spin generated by the core during impact with the club, increasing the distance a ball travels. 
• The covers of golf balls are the hardest working part of the ball. They must be as stiff as possible to use the energy the most efficient way and fly those long distances. The covers cannot be too stiff however, or they will crack easily. To meet this criteria, some golf ball covers are made of Urethane. Urethane, or C3H7NO2 , is a carbon chain with an OH end and an NO2 end. These polar ends form very strong intermolecular forces which help Urethane fit the criteria of a golf ball cover. The intermolecular forces include hydrogen bonds, one between the OH end and the Oxygen atom at a different point in the chain, and another hydrogen between the NH2 end and the Oxygen atom at a different point. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind CLUBS 

You tee up your shot and take in the landscape of the first hole. It’s a 410 yard par 4 with a nice, wide fairway. Aj, What do you recommend I hit on this shot? 

I would recommend a driver here.

Sounds like a plan! 

• Most common material woods (driver, 3 wood, etc.) are made out of titanium, a development that started in the 1990s. The properties behind titanium make it both a strong yet lightweight material that allows for fast swings and consistent contact. Titanium alloys such as 6/4 titanium or beta titanium are extremely common as well. Pure or high grade titanium is used typically only for the face of the club and the head of the driver/wood is a different, cheaper, and light material. 
• AJ: What makes golf companies choose titanium for the club heads/faces in drivers? 
• Titanium is an extremely strong metal with a low density. Its strength can be attributed to the fact that a titanium ion has 4 delocalized electrons when metallic bonding, which creates a larger sea of free flowing electrons between the titanium ions, thus strengthening the attraction between the ions. 

(Slight pause)

You hit it dead center of the face and land your shot in the middle of the fairway, a solid 250 yard drive. 

AJ: Id say that titanium club face sure is doing its job! 

Christian: Those ions sure are putting in the work. We’ve got about 160 to the hole, What would you hit here AJ?

AJ: a soft 7 iron for sure. 

• Despite their name, irons are not made solely from iron, and are made instead from stainless steel, typically the alloys 17-4 or 431. 17-4 stainless steel is named as such because it is approximately 17% chromium and 4% nickel. This alloy is both interstitial and substitutional since both Cr and Ni are similar in size to Fe, but other elements like C or Ta differ greatly in size from Fe. The content of chromium in the alloy allows for very good corrosion resistance, since the chromium forms a thin layer of chromium oxide, protecting the iron from forming Fe2O3, or rust. This allows the clubs to be played in harsher weather conditions. 

(Pause) 

Christian: What a shot! You sure this is your first time? Looks like a 10 foot putt for birdie, which is one under par. Aj, What’s up with putters? 

• There are 3 main materials that putter heads are made of, Brass, Carbon Steel, and Stainless Steel. Brass putters are not seen often anymore because of how malleable brass is. Brass is an alloy made up of usually ⅓ zinc to ⅔ copper ratio. This alloy is structured in a metallic lattice which means tightly packed metal ions arranged in clumps. The alloy is also substitutional because zinc atoms are a similar size to copper atoms. The two are next to each other on the periodic table meaning their valence electrons exist in the same sublevel. You would expect copper to be a larger atom than zinc based on general periodic table trends but these trends can differ. One example is with zinc and copper. If you imagine a graph of the atomic radii of transition metals you would expect a negative slope the whole way from left to right, but… the curve actually kicks up at the end and radii increase because when you pack so many electrons into the one D orbital, they begin to repel each other and spread out. This means that zinc atoms actually have a larger atomic radius than copper atoms but they are still very similar in size. The substitutional quality of the alloy means that it is malleable and does not chip or crack. When hit with a golf ball in a certain way or hard enough, the brass putters would dent. If a golfer hits the ground with their brass putter it could permanently deform and wouldn't be functional anymore. 
• The next putter head is Carbon Steel. These were used in the 1990s and early 2000s. Carbon Steel is an interstitial alloy meaning a lattice structure of large iron atoms with small carbon atoms intermixed in the smaller spaces. Carbon Steel putters had one defect to them, they rusted very easily and very fast. Rust is just a name for Iron Oxide, Fe2O3. When oxygen atoms come in contact with the carbon steel lattice, iron atoms are ripped away and the putter rusts and decays. This was their fault. 
• The third putter material is stainless steel, the most common material today. Stainless steel is rust resistant due to its minimum of 10.5% chromium content. This chromium reacts with the oxygen in the air and forms a protective layer that prevents the iron in the stainless steel from reacting with the oxygen and rusting. This chromium layer makes stainless steel rust and corrosion resistant. The crystalline structure of the stainless steel makes it harder than carbon steel and brass which is why it is used so often in today's putters. 

(Pause for cheering)

Christian: What a putt! You made a birdie and learned about chemistry! 

AJ: I haven't seen game like this since my boys Henderson and Hasselbach in 09!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections.   For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here.  Make sure they are linked.  Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.hirekogolf.com/clubheads-material-differences

https://www.britannica.com/science/titanium 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17-4_stainless_steel 

https://www.thediygolfer.com/blog/the-differences-between-brass-carbon-steel-and-stainless-steel 

https://www.golfballs.com/blog/what-are-golf-balls-made-out-of/ 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionomer#:~:text=An%20ionomer%20

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of CookiesEpisode #6  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Zoe Reznik and I am your host for episode #6 called Chemistry of Cookies. Today I will be discussing the science behind your perfect chocolate chip cookie.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chemistry of Cookies

Introduce the episode topic

Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

• Every chocolate chip cookie has a different set of chemical properties and reactions that give them their unique textures. Whether your idea of the perfect cookie means it being chewy, crispy, or soft, there is a specific set of ingredients that give your cookie that wow factor.
•  To start, every cookie has the same base ingredients: flour, sugar, eggs, and butter. What you add to that list of ingredients really makes the cookie what it is. In this episode, I’ll be diving into the types of rising agents you can use and the different types of sugar.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Cookies

Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

• To begin our investigation of the cookie, we’ll talk about the types of rising agents you use in your cookies, specifically baking soda and baking powder. 
• “soda spread and powder puffs” - baking soda helps your cookie dough spread out in the oven and baking powder helps the cookie rise. 
• Adding more baking soda will create a denser cookie, that’s flatter and not as soft. Adding more baking powder will result in a cookie that is taller and more doughy (more cake-like texture). 
• baking soda, sodium bicarbonate, decomposes into water and carbon dioxide when heated, with a leftover salt. 
• These products are gas -> warmer gas molecules will have particles that move faster, so they collide with other molecules in the cookie more, causing the cookie to expand in the oven. 
• However, the salt slows down the process of the bubbles creating air pockets within the cookie, meaning the cookie will fall flat instead of rising like it should. This is where the baking powder comes in. Baking powder combines that sodium bicarbonate with an acid that helps the cookies rise. 
• This combination is a mixture of an acid and a base, as the acid used in the baking powder will donate an H+ to the sodium bicarbonate from the baking soda, neutralizing the effect of the excess salt. That’s a little Bronsted-Lowry chemistry for you there. So, basically depending on how fluffy or dense you want your cookie, you should adjust your baking soda to baking powder ratio accordingly. 

The next part of our baking adventure is the type of sugar used in chocolate chip cookies: regular white granulated sugar, light brown sugar, and dark brown sugar. 

• The Maillard process: a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars in the cookie that allow the cookie to caramalize (get that brown coloring) and give out an intense, rich flavor. 
• Reducing sugars are created from the breaking of bonds within sucrose to form fructose and glucose during heating. 
• Sucrose and fructose are highly polar, so they can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules in the cookies, allowing for a greater water retention in the cookie, or less evaporation of the water when baking the cookie. Hydrogen bonds are a type of intermolecular forces between two very polar molecules, in this case it’s sugar and water. They are very strong and hard to break, so when the sugar forms one with water, it creates a strong enough bond that won’t break when it undergoes heating, allowing the water to stay within the cookie.
• greater the water concentration in the cookie = more moist and fluffy cookie
• White granulated sugar will not undergo a strong Maillard reaction because it doesn’t contain as much reducing sugars, so a cookie with white granulated sugar will be a crispier cookie 
• Dark brown sugar undergoes a much stronger Maillard reaction and will produce a softer, chewier cookie because of all the reducing sugars it has 
• Light brown sugar is somewhere in the middle. 
• Basic rundown: to make a lighter, chewier cookie, you want less water to evaporate during the baking process. To get this to happen, you want more reducing sugars in your cookie that will form hydrogen bonds to the water molecules and keep them in the cookie. To get a higher concentration of reducing sugars, you want a darker sugar, like dark brown sugar. Lighter sugar = crispy cookie, darker sugar = chewier cookie. 

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic?  Why is it important?  Anything else you’d like to share.

• My sister has been baking for years, and I admired her baked goods as a little kid
• I started baking on my own in high school and chocolate chip cookies are my favorite baked good
• Looking for the perfect recipe
• This podcast is a great excuse for me to bakes a ton of cookies and eat them to see which one is best
• The best cookie is with: (enter here)

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections.   For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here.  Make sure they are linked.  Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

• https://www.redpathsugar.com/recipe/science-cookies
• https://noopurskitchen.com/science-of-cookies-ingredients-process/
• ​​https://www.seriouseats.com/cookie-science-baking-powder#:~:text=Baking%20powder%20is%20a%20two,cookies%2C%20cakes%2C%20and%20pancakes.
• https://www.thoughtco.com/chemistry-baking-cookies-4140220
• https://kneadnbeat.com/part-ii-the-science-of-different-types-of-sugars-in-baking/
• https://www.southernliving.com/food/sweeteners/molasses/what-is-molasses
• https://www.redpathsugar.com/recipe/science-cookies#:~:text=The%20Maillard%20reaction%20is%20a,in%20bread%20and%20seared%20steak.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6wpNhyreDE
• https://www.dominosugar.com/baking-tips-how-tos/different-purposes-of-sugar#:~:text=Sugar%20helps%20to%20retain%20water,development%20and%20delay%20starch%20gelatinization. 

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of Sour CandyEpisode #5  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Anna Zhao and I am your host for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Sour Candy. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind turning regular sugar into hard candy and the chemistry behind citric acid.

Segment 1: Introduction to Candy

Hard candy is a product made predominantly from sugar and corn syrup that may be flavored or colored, and is characterized by a hard, brittle texture. 

When we talk about candy making, one of the central ideas is crystallization. This is the process where sugar molecules arrange themselves into a well defined, repeating structure known as a crystal. The texture of the candy whether its smooth like caramel or crunchy like rock candy, depends on how the sugar crystals are formed. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Sour Candy

At the heart of candy making is a simple ingredient we all know: sugar, or more specifically, sucrose. Now, lets zoom in and further look at the polarity of sucrose. Sucrose is a polar molecule, meaning it has distinct positive and negative ends. 

The overal polarity depends on both the individual bond polarities, and the geometry of the molecule. 

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a covalent bond. When two atoms in a molecule have different electronegativities, the electrons in the bond are not shared equally, resulting in a polar bond. The atoms in sucrose are Carbon with an electronegativity of 2.55, Hydrogen with an electronegativity of 2.20, and oxygen with an electrogetivity of 3.44.

 Using these values, it is determined that C-H bonds have an electronegativity difference of 0.35 (smal diff), C-O have 0.89 (large diff considered polar), and O-H have a diff of 1.24 (very large diff considered very polar).

C-O bonds are polar because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. This causes a partial neg charge on the oxygen atoms and a partial pos charge on the carbon atom. O-H bonds are even more polar due to the larger electronegativity difference between oxygen and H. This results in a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial pos charge on the hydrogen atom. 

Sucrose is a three dimensional structure with hydroxyl (OH) groups extending in various directions. The asymmetry of the molecule means that the dipole moments of the bonds do not cancel each other out, making the molecule polar. 

Knowing that sucrose is polar is important because it explains how and why sugar dissolves in water. 

So what happens when you heat it up? When you heat a sugar and water solution. You’re not just dissolving sugar. You’re actually changing the crystal structure. By applying heat, we separate the highly bound sucrose crystals, allowing us to manipulate them in new ways. Basically, raising the temperature of the sugar solution increases the amount of sugar that can dissolve in water, creating what’s known as a supersaturated solution. As the solution cools, the sugar will start to recrystallize into a solid mass. 

Terms like “softball” and “hardcrack” are often used by candy makers to describe the texture of the sugar solution when it’s heated to specific temperatures. For instance, at around 235°F to 245°F, you get what is known as the softball stage which is perfect for making softer candies like fudges and fondants. Heating it up to 300°F to 310°F is known as the hard crack stage which is needed for making hard candies like lollipops. The higher the temperature is, the harder the candy becomes because you’re reducing the water content.  

As the sugar solution cools, the sugar molecules start to recrystallize. If you’re making, for example, rock candy, you should leave the mixture undisturbed to allow the sugar molecules to come together slowly and form large crystals. On the other hand, if you want a smoother texture or consistency, you need to agitate the mixture to prevent the formation of large crystals. 

There are multiple ways to achieve this. Stirring is one way, while another way is adding invert sugars like corn syrup. Invert sugar is a mixture of glucose and fructose, which interfere with sucrose crystalization. These molecules combine with the sucrose in a way that disrupts the formation of the large crystals.

Another way is to add acids like lemon juice or cream of tartar to the candy mixture which convert some of the sucrose into invert sugar, achieving the same result.

As you can see, acids play a huge role in candy making. So we’re now going to shift focus onto citric acid how it is used to add sourness to sweet candy. Citric acid is a natural acid found in citrus fruits like lemons, limes, and oranges and is what gives their characteristic flavor. 

Sourness is the taste our tongue detects from acidity. Specifically, it is the hydrogen ions H+ that are responsible for the taste. 

When citric acid comes in contact with water (Like in our saliva), it dissociates. This means the citric acid molecule (C6H8O7) releases hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions h3o+. Our tongues have receptors for H3O+ and once they detect it, they send signals to our brain telling us we are tasting something sour. 

So every time you eat sour candy, it’s essentially a mini chemistry experiment happening in your mouth! 

Segment 3: Personal Connections

The main reason I chose this topic is that I love eating candy just like billions of people around the world. I’ve also grown up making candy at home , where I used to make tanghulu with my grandma which is like a chinese snack thats basically a fruit skewer dipped and coated in hardened sugar/candy, I’ve found that not only is candy making a fun activity, It’s a great way to learn about chemistry in a delicious, and tangible way. I’ve always been curious about the chemical properties and processes involved, especially how such simple ingredients can be transformed into such a wide variety of textures and flavors. I hope you enjoyed this topic and I hope that next time you enjoy a sweet treat, this makes you think more about the chemistry it took to make it, and the chemistry happening in your mouth!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections.   For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here.  Make sure they are linked.  Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MoBvV12C58&ab_channel=WIRED 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXs_axKuPvE&ab_channel=RandyMakesCandy 

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Chemistry Connections

The Chemistry of Minerals

Episode #4  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ben Ault and I am your host for episode #4 called The Chemistry of Minerals. Today I will be discussing the chemistry behind the formation and properties of minerals.

Segment 1: Introduction to Minerals

Minerals are a classification of substances that are formed naturally via geological processes and form crystalline structures. Specifically, this means that they are usually formed by different substances undergoing reactions deep beneath the earth's surface, under extreme temperature and pressure conditions.

In this segment, I'll cover:

• What defines a mineral
• The result of the chemical properties of minerals
• The difference between rocks and minerals
• Species distinctions of minerals
• Classification of minerals

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Minerals

All of this is a result of the atomic behaviors of the elements that compose each mineral. All of these phenomena and patterns can be explained by delving into the chemistry within each mineral.

In this segment, I'll cover:

Topic 1: Formation

• Conditions that enable the formation of minerals
• How the conditions can affect the types of minerals created
• Formation through volcanic or oceanic activity

Topic 2: Properties as a result of bond types

• Bond structures of minerals
• Empirical structures and formulas
• Conditions that determine bond structure
• Crystal structures in relation to bond structure
• Malleability and pure metallic minerals

Topic 3: Properties as a result of elemental composition

• How elemental composition affects color
• Predictions of elements in a mineral based off of color
• Fluorescent minerals

Segment 3: Personal Connections

When I was in kindergarten, I had a teacher that gave my class little rocks and minerals for doing well, and explained to us whatever we could understand at that age. Since then, I've kept my collection of rocks and I've consistently been curious about what makes rocks and minerals behave the way they do.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections.   For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

Types of Minerals - Definition, Classification & Examples with Videos

Mineral - Wikipedia

Minerals, Crystals, Rocks & Stones: What’s The Difference? - FossilEra.com

How do minerals form? - The Australian Museum

How Are Diamonds Made?

Mineral Classification - Sternberg Museum of Natural History

Fluorescence - Wikipedia.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Chemistry Connections

Chemistry of Caffeine

Episode #3 

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Neve and Alana and I am your host for episode #3 called Chemistry of Caffeine Today we will be discussing The chemical structure and function of the caffeine molecule.

Segment 1: Introduction to Caffeine

Introduce the episode topic

Include definitions, vocabulary, interesting background information and context

Alana: Hey everyone, I’m Alana…and I’m Neve… and welcome to this week's episode of Chemistry Connections, where today, we will be discussing the chemistry of everyone's favorite chemical: caffeine!!!!!!!! Caffeine is a chemical compound which is commonly found in beverages and serves as a central nervous system stimulant, and it is the most widely used CNS stimulant in the world. 

Neve: Whether it be in your morning coffee, or your pre-workout energy drink, people these days can’t get enough of this energizing substance.

Alana: In one year, Americans will consume over 971 tons of pure caffeine (Cooper Aerobics). That's a LOT!

Neve: Since we consume so much of it, it's probably important to understand it better.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Caffeine

Alana: Caffeine at its foundation, is just a combination of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen, with a chemical structure of C8H10N4O2. 

Neve: The molecule has 25 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds. Sigma bonds are bonds that are directly in line with the nuclei of the bonding atoms. Pi bonds occur when there are multiple bonding spots, located either above or below the nuclei of the bonding atoms.

Alana:  Each single bond is made up of one sigma bond, and each double bond is made up of one sigma and one pi bond. Because of this, there are 25 sigma bonds and 4 pi bonds that make up a caffeine molecule. Neve: All the bonds in a caffeine molecule are stable, covalent bonds, as the bonding allows each atom to completely fill its valence shell. 

Alana: These bonds are slightly polar, making the caffeine molecule a polar molecule. The molecule is polar because there are EN differences between the oxygen/nitrogen and carbon atoms, allowing the oxygen/nitrogen atoms to slightly pull the electrons towards them in the bond. 

Neve: Because the caffeine molecule is polar and there are dipole moments formed between atoms, there are dipole-dipole IMFs that exist between the atoms in the molecule. Additionally, the caffeine molecule has London Dispersion Forces. LDFs exist between all particles, regardless of polarity. 

Alana: The covalent bonds in a caffeine molecule are very strong, and the strength of these bonds lend themselves to a high melting point at around 230 degrees.

Neve: The stronger the bond, the stronger the IMFs between the molecules, meaning more energy is needed to break these bonds. In this case, the energy comes in the form of heat, meaning caffeine has a high melting point. 

Alana: The covalent bonds in the caffeine molecule also allow for hydrogen bonding to occur between caffeine and water molecules. The strongest H-bond forms at the top C=O group, but additional bonds can form between water and the bottom C=O group, as well as between the nitrogen atoms and water molecules. 

Segment 3: Caffeine: Is it an acid or a base?

Neve: It's also important to understand that even though people may think that caffeine is super acidic, caffeine is only a weak acid, meaning it can protonate a strong base.

Alana: This means that caffeine wants to give hydrogen atoms to basic substances. 

Neve: One reason that caffeine is acidic has to do with the structure’s outer nitrogen atoms. Nitrogen atoms have a lone pair of electrons in their outer shell, which are readily available to give protons aka hydrogen atoms.

Alana: Because of this, caffeine can react with other substances which are bases to form salts. 

Neve: It's not typical in nature for this formation of salts to happen, as the only times that caffeine typically forms into salts are in lab settings.

Alana: Caffeine Hydrochloride, Caffeine Sodium Benzoate, and Caffeine Sulfate are a few types of caffeine salts.

Neve: In your morning cup of coffee, however, your caffeine is likely in the form of a “free Alkaloid”. This means that the caffeine molecules are not bonded to any other types of molecules.

Alana: This is because caffeine is a very very weak acid.

Neve: The molecule is such a weak acid that it's practically neutral. In fact, it has a pH of 6.55, which is very close to a 7, which is neutral on the pH scale.

Alana: The addition of sugar or cream to your coffee can have impacts on the pH, though the effects are very minimal as the pHs of milk and sugar are very close to being neutral.

Neve: The acid may be weak, but I like my coffee strong!!!

Segment 4: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic?  Why is it important?  Anything else you’d like to share.

Neve: We were particularly interested in the topic of caffeine, since we are such fanatics ourselves.

Alana: We’ve gotten very good at making it and ordering it. What’s your go-to coffee Neve?

Neve: If I’m making it at home, it’s usually a cold brew with some alond milk and sugar or that carmel flavor syrup. But, if I’m ordering it, it depends on Dunkin or Starbucks. My Dunkin order is ___ and my Starbucks order is __.

Alana: Ooooh those are good choices. If I’m making it myself, it’s def gotta be either a lavender latte or a caramel latte. If it’s Dunkin though, its gotta be an iced coffee with oatmilk and caramel. And then from Starbs I get either a latte with something or the shaken espressos.

TALK ABOUT COFFEE FOR A BIT  

Alana: Oftentimes I find myself over-consuming caffeine, so it's important to understand the chemical properties and effects that it has on the body.

Neve: Caffeine is a fascinating molecule that has so many attributes. There are many different chemicals that caffeine causes the human body and brain to produce. 

Alana:Norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter and hormone, plays an important role in your body's “fight-or-flight” response.

 Neve: Dopamine, acts on areas of the brain to give you feelings of pleasure, satisfaction and motivation

Alana: And serotonin, a chemical that carries messages between nerve cells in the brain and throughout your body.

Neve: These are just a few of the many effects caffeine has on the human brain.These qualities also contribute to the addictive trait of many of our favorite caffeinated beverages. WE HAVE 30 SECONDS KEEP GOING

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections.   For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here.  Make sure they are linked.  Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

Cooper Aerobics

National Library of Medicine

National Library of Medicine Study

socratic.org

Chemistry By Johnson

FoodB

Health Direct

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of Chipotle Episode #2  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Maxxe Rice and I am your host for episode #2 called The Chemistry of Chipotle Today I will be discussing the best food known to man, Chipotle.

Segment 1: Introduction to Chipotle 

For the first segment I will be discussing an introduction to what Chipotle is. For those who don't know, Chipotle is the best fast food restaurant chain that serves Mexican inspired cuisine. They are infamous for their delicious burritos, bowls, quesadillas, chips and guacamole. The restaurant is set up when you are ordering in an assembly line style in which you customize your burrito, bowl, or whatever you are choosing to get as you go down the line with workers scooping the ingredients for you. They go by their motto at chipotle that, “Real is better. Better for You, Better for People, Better for Our Planet.” They make their food fresh every day because of their motto and they use no artificial flavors, colors, or preservatives, no freezers, can openers, or shortcuts… I know I wouldn't want to work there either, it seems like a lot of work. But really that's what makes them so good they are committed to their amazing food and they only use 53 real ingredients. There is also an extreme debate about how to pronounce Chipotle especially with my grandparents and I. My grandma calls it Chi-poat-lee, my other grandma calls it Chi-pot-te but all of those are wrong. The correct way to say chipotle is Chih-poat-lay. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Chipotle

Now you know what chipotle is, let's dive into some of the science behind this outstanding food. 

Specifically starting with: a common ingredient in chipotles renowned known guacamole, tomato red chili salsa, fresh tomato salsa, roasted chili corn salsa, honey vinaigrette, tomatillo green chili salsa, and so many other foods that chipotle has that if I said all of them I would be talking for almost 5 minutes. One ingredient that all of these foods have in common is some type of pepper. These peppers also have something in common as well… SPICEEEEEEE. This is where the chemistry comes in…. Because well the spicy flavor that you taste with some of chipotle's food is due to a spice molecule named capsaicin…. I know what you may be thinking capsa what?! Yes you heard it right, capsaicin. Capsaicin is my cool friend that basically has active chemical superpowers. Capsaicin, the molecular formula of C18H27NO3,  is an organic molecule which is made up of a benzene ring with a long hydrophobic carbon tail and a polar amide group. Now let's take a further look into the actual structure of the molecule because that sounds really confusing. A benzene ring is a ring formation of six carbon atoms which are bonded together and have alternating single and double bonds between them. The long hydrophobic carbon tail means essentially a chain of carbon atoms bonded together with surrounding hydrogen atoms around them bonded to each carbon on the chain. The polar amide group is the part of the molecule where there is a nitrogen atom and a double bonded oxygen atom. We can break this molecule up into two different polar regions and 1 nonpolar region. Something is polar if there is asymmetry in the molecule and if there is a difference in electronegativity between the atoms within the molecule. Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract shared electrons when forming a chemical bond. With larger molecules we don't tend to just get one solidly polar or nonpolar molecule but a molecule with different regions of polarity. The hydrocarbon tail contains a difference in electronegativity because of the difference in electronegativity between the hydrogen and carbon molecules however it is not polar due to the symmetry of carbon and hydrogen atoms that make up these chains, therefore this part of the molecule is nonpolar. On the other hand the part of the molecule that contains the amide group and benzene ring with the OH attached to it is an example of a polar section of the molecule. This is a polar section because of the asymmetry of the different atoms and the difference in electronegativity between the different atoms as well. Ok now more about what it does in the actual pepper… Capsaicin is an organic molecule that is contained within the membrane of peppers. This membrane that capsaicin is in holds the seeds in chili peppers, which fun fact, contrary to what most people think and what I found interesting… I always thought it was the seeds that were the specifically spicy part of peppers but that's not actually the case. When you eat something with Capsaicin you feel the burning sensation of something being spicy. This happens because the molecules have an unique shape and size which allows it to react with the TRPV1 Receptor which is a special receptor on your tongue that creates a chemical response in your body. Specifically, the calcium ions go to the receptor and trigger neurons to be released. Neurons are cells that can essentially talk and communicate with your brain and tell them that there is a burning and spicy sensation in your mouth when you eat foods containing Capsaicin. 

In addition to there being chemistry behind the spice in their foods, there is also chemistry behind how Chipotle keeps their incredible food warm. In order to ensure that the food is getting to our plates the freshest that it can, Chipotle uses a water bath heating system in order to keep all of the warm food warm at all times. The food is held in separate metal containers, each ingredient in a different metal container. These containers are slid into a big metal bin like structure which has some water in the bottom but not enough to physically touch the separate metal containers that are slid into the top of the bin. Underneath the big metal bin that's installed into the counter there are burners. Let's follow the heat transfer from the burners underneath the bins all the way to the best food ever. First the burners underneath the bin are fueled by propane. Propane is a burning fuel that's used for light and heat. It is stored under pressure inside a tank and it is an odorless colorless liquid. When the burner is turned on, pressure is released from the propane tank and the liquid propane vaporizes, turning into a gas that is used in the combustion reaction in order to create heat and light. A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas and releases energy in the form of light and heat. Specifically, the reaction that propane undergoes is written as C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4 H2O + Heat . This reaction means that propane and oxygen react together in order to create carbon dioxide, water, and heat as products. This combustion reaction of propane is an exothermic reaction which means that the reaction releases heat and light in the form of creating a flame. This reaction being an exothermic reaction also means that there is more energy released when product bonds are formed and less energy absorbed when reactant bonds are broken. The heat from the exothermic combustion reaction is then released to the stainless steel metal bin on top of the burners. Chipotle uses stainless steel metal for the material of their containers because metals are amazing conductors of heat. Stainless steel specifically is made up of the metals iron, and chromium. Iron and Chromium atoms form metallic bonds between their atoms. Metallic bonding refers to chemical bonding that takes place between metal atoms in which electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom are shared by all the atoms in the metal created. This bond creates what they call a sea of electrons. In order for something to be conductive the substance must have charged particles that are able to flow. Because of the sea of electrons that iron contains due to its metallic bonds, iron has free flowing electrons which are charged particles that can flow in the sea of electrons. Therefore iron is a great conductor and great at transferring energy. Iron conducts heat from the burners beneath to the water that is present in the bin. When the water bath gets heated the water molecules move faster and gain more energy, eventually leading to the intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonds) between the water molecules breaking and water molecules changing phases from liquid to a vapor. The water vapor molecules move very fast and have a lot of energy in which the water molecules then collide with the smaller stainless steel containers which are slid on top of the big metal bin. The collisions from the water vapor particles with the small metal bins creates another energy transfer and the metal bins to be heated. The stainless steel is then able to heat up and conduct the heat energy to the food that the bins contain, resulting in the food staying warm.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Now you may be thinking well, why chipotle? Well the truth is I chose Chipotle for my project because it is my favorite thing on the face of the earth. I first tried Chipotle in first grade and I remember the exact day. I got a bowl and I have been hooked ever since. As soon as I take my first bite into my food I feel an insane feeling of serenity and euphoria. The food is just so good and it makes me so happy. I just love it man and it's important because other people would love it if they tried it too. It is also a plus that I love chemistry and there is so much chemistry involved in Chipotle as I explained during this podcast which is just another plus. My order if you would like to know is a bowl with a quesadilla on the side (So you can make a burrito with some of your bowl while you are eating) then white rice, chicken, pico, corn, lettuce, cheese, sour cream, guac, and chips on the side. There is also a life hack that semi has to deal with science (Psychology possibly) which can be for an episode another time once I learn psychology. But if you ask for each topping one at a time they are bound to give you more with each scoop because the workers don't know how to portion it right. Alright now I am done talking about chipotle but the chemistry never stops! Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

https://www.chipotle.com/values 

https://www.everydaychemistries.com/blog/capsaicin 

https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/propane-basics 

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/capsaicin#:~:text=Capsaicin%20 

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of SlimeEpisode #_1_  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Agathe and my name is Beck. We are your hosts for episode #1 called The Chemistry of Slime.  Today we will be deep-diving into the chemistry of slime. We will discuss not only what slime is but also how it is made. 

Segment 1: Introduction to Slime

Slime—something we all know and love. Typically, you see it on TikTok or Instagram, where someone mixes glue and an unknown clear substance in a bowl, ultimately creating a fun, rubbery material. It is enjoyable to play with, poke, stretch, and make large bubbles with, but what makes slime the way it is, and what allows it to behave like that?

Slime is made by mixing glue with an activator containing boric acid. Typically, people use borax, a common clothing cleaner, mixed with water and then add it to the glue.

But Beck, what if I don't have Borax, or what if my parents dont let me use such a strong cleaner, especially when I am making slime with my little sister

Others like myself, who prefer to avoid strong chemicals, tend to use baking soda and contact solution. Which works just as well and is much more accessible and safe.  The resulting substance is rubbery and molten, yet not sticky, allowing it to be played with for hours. But the interesting question is why is slime the way it is, why is it moldable but not sticky.

Put a pin in that Beck we will talk about that later. Another fun aspect of slime is that it can be tailored to anyone's preferences, with its color, texture, and size changing depending on the added ingredients. This versatility makes slime a popular and customizable activity for many.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Slime

Going back to your question from earlier beck Topic one: The formation of PVA/borate cross-linked polymer (How is Slime Made?)

glue is made up of PVA chains, which are basically long chains of CH2, Oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. Then we have, borate ions which are found in the activator, which are made up of boron bonded to hydrogen and oxygen. When mixed together, the borate ions bond the PVA chains of the glue together, creating a fishnet structure which is called cross-linking. So beck, What type of bonds connect the Borate to PVA? 

Well it is actually hydrogen bonds, which are a type of intermolecular dipole dipole force that is very strong. They are formed when hydrogen is bonded to a very electronegative element, either Nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. The resulting bond is very strong and allows slime to be formed. But one thing you will notice is that when making slime it actually get colder, why is that Agathe

Interestingly, the reaction is endothermic, meaning it absorbs energy in the form of heat from its surroundings to form new bonds, causing the slime to feel cold. The endothermic nature of the reaction is due to the formation of these hydrogen bonds, which requires a lot of energy to be created.

 Wow! That is so interesting Agathe! Now I know how slime is made. You know, once I made slime and I stretched it so much that it created a big bubble, when it popped it got into my sister's hair.

That is insane! But how does slime get that stretchy? I thought hydrogen bonds were super strong

Topic 2: Why is slime stretchy?

Good question Agathe leading us to topic 2! Slimes' flexible nature is actually due the hydrogen bonds between the borate and PVC molecules.

No way! That seems so counterintuitive.

The hydrogen bonds within slime are strong enough to keep the slime intact when stretched but also flexible enough to allow movement within the polymer network. 

 Ahhh i see. Wait but last time I made slime with mr johnson he told me to add in lotion he said it would make it stretchier. I told him that didn't sound right to me. Who was right? 

Mr Johnson actually is! Adding lotion to the slime introduces glycerin, which interacts with the hydrogen bonds. 

Ugh whatever, what even is glycerin 

It is an odorless carbohydrate liquid that has a sweet taste and a syrupy consistency. While glycerin occurs naturally in plants through the fermentation of sugars, most of the glycerin nowadays is produced from factories. They are able to form hydrogen bonds with the PVA.

Oh I see so the glycerin replaces some of the existing hydrogen bonds,  instead hydrogen bonding to the PVA, making the whole substance weaker and more flexible. But not too much so that it becomes a liquid.

Yes, This results in the slime becoming even stretchier, as the weaker bonds can extend further while still maintaining the overall structure of the slime. Thus, the stretchiness is a balance between the strong, flexible bonds and the weakened bonds introduced by the lotion, providing both resilience and extensibility.

That's so cool. I love that!

Why are we here today

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Well Beck, we both loved the idea of the chemistry behind slime because it is such a simple thing to make that many kids love; however, we never thought of how these liquids turn into solids without heat or outside forces. Many times students don’t remember what is taught in school, however, I believe that when we focus on subjects we enjoy, this is what we will remember for the rest of our lives. 

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-run podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

https://stemium.com/slime-science-project/ 

https://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/11/ScienceofSlime_student.pdf 

https://www.steamworks.org.uk/how-does-slime-work/#:~:text=Slime%20is%20wet%20because%20water,be%20pulled%20into%20stretchy%20shapes.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Rockets and Space CraftsEpisode #15  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Vanessa and I am your host for episode #15 called Chemistry of Rockets and Space crafts. Today I will be discussing how rockets are launched into space and how people are able to survive in the vessels. Specifically, how chemistry helps make space travel possible.

Segment 1: Introduction to Rockets and Space Crafts

What is a rocket?

First off I’m going to talk about what a rocket actually is. Usually when you think of a rocket, you probably think of a tall, thin, round vehicle. However, a rocket isn’t just the traditional spacecraft but it can also be the engine and any vehicle that uses the engine

When were rockets invented?

• The first “rockets” were created in China in the 1200s. They used solid fuel and were used as fireworks. They were also used by armies. Overtime, rockets evolved and became bigger. Rocket production really picked up during the cold war, where in 1957 the Soviet’s Sputnik was launched. In 1969, the United States sent the first men to the moon with the Saturn V rocket
• How rockets and spacecraft work have changed over time, especially with the types of engines used and how the engines work.

Shuttles and space capsules (apollo missions)

How do the engines work?

• The engines burn fuel, which turns into hot gas which is then pushed out the back by the engine. The gas causes the rocket to propel upwards and move forwards
• A rocket engine is different from a jet engine because it doesn't need air. It has everything it needs, allowing it to work in space.
• There are two types of engines:
• Liquid fuels (used in the space shuttles and Russian Soyuz)
• First liquid fuel rocket which is used today was invented by Robert H Goddard
• Solid fuels (on the side of the space shuttles)

Rockets/Space Crafts Today:

• ISS (International Space Station)
• NASA, Russia’s Roscosmos, Japan’s JAXA, Europe’s ESA, and Canada’s CSA
• To conduct research and study space
• Artemis missions
• Return to the moon, long term presence on the moon, to study and better understand the lunar surface
• Space X
• Aims to help in the mission to colonize mars and participate in space travel and exploration

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Rockets and Space Crafts

What makes NASA rockets fly:

Combustion Reactions:

• Newton’s Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The combustion reactions are what allow the rockets to launch and then fly.
• A combustion reaction results from burning something. It releases energy which is what allows the rockets to move. The fuel is what burns when it is mixed with an oxidizer creating a propellant. 
• RS-25 main engines are liquid engines:
• Liquid hydrogen is the fuel
• Liquid oxygen is the oxidizer
• The boosters use aluminum as fuel with ammonium perchlorate as the oxidizer and is mixed with a binder creating a homogeneous solid propellant.
• Hydrogen: the main fuel is the lightest element as exists normally as a gas
• Low density meaning a little takes up a lot of space
• A really large tank would be needed for a large combustion reaction, which isn’t aerodynamically suitable
• Therefore, by turning hydrogen into a liquid it makes it denser meaning it takes up less space. Hydrogen is cooled to a temp of -432 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Oxygen:
• Oxygen is denser than hydrogen but also needs to be compressed into a liquid in order to fit into the smaller lighter tank so it is cooled to -297 degrees Fahrenheit
• LH2 and LOX
• Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen
• 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + Energy
• Water
• Releases a lot of energy in the form of steam
• The hydrogen-oxygen reaction generates heat which causes the water vapor to expand and exit the nozzles at speeds of 10000 miles per hour. The fast moving stream allows the rocket to propel upwards.
• *talk about not knowing it was steam*

Living long-term in space:

• The ISS uses a method to remove CO2 from the air and allow astronauts to breath by using a sorbent, LiOH
• The exothermic reaction of LiOH with CO2 creates lithium carbonate (Li2CO3)(s) and water. LiOH has a high absorption capacity for CO2 and produces a small amount of heat. It is also a very strong base.
• This will also be used in future missions to Mars as well as on other long term missions that require people to be able to breath without their suits on.
• CO2 and O2
• 2LiOH(s) + CO2 (g) → Li2CO3(s) + H2O (g)
• It's an acid-base reaction. Scrubbers, which are expandable filters, containing lithium hydroxide, capture carbon dioxide. This removes carbon dioxide in the air, allowing astronauts to breathe. (originally)

1. For long term missions, this isn't effective so scrubbers with minerals called zeolites are instead used. They capture the CO2 and release it into space, allowing it to be reused for extended periods.

• Now, scientists discovered a way to turn carbon dioxide into water.

Carbon dioxide reduction system →meanign the number of electrons associated with the atom increase. `                              

1. Combines CO2 with hydrogen gas to form water and methane. The methane gas is vented into space and the water is split into breathable oxygen and hydrogen gas using hydrolysis. The hydrogen gas is then used to make more water.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

• Space has always been something that has fascinated me and I grew up obsessed with everything space and NASA related. I know a lot about the planets and stars, but not a lot about the rockets and vessels that actually allow us to get data on astronomical bodies. So I wanted to research this topic to learn how exactly rockets work on a chemistry level. 
• Air and Space museum in DC
• NASA Houston
• NASA Cape Canaveral/Kennedy Space Center
• How cool it is the affect chemistry has on space

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://blogs.nasa.gov/Rocketology/2016/04/15/weve-got-rocket-chemistry-part-1/ 

https://blogs.nasa.gov/Rocketology/tag/chemical-reactions/

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-a-rocket-k4.html

https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/teach/activity/the-air-up-there-making-space-breathable/#:~:text=And%20chemistry%20plays%20an%20important,called%20lithium%20hydroxide%20(LiOH).

https://tech.hindustantimes.com/tech/news/nasa-artemis-i-mission-not-just-rocket-science-hidden-chemistry-powers-moon-launches-and-sustains-life-in-space-71662286082698.html

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of CosmeticsEpisode #14

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Sydney Yeh and my name is Hannah Chu and we are your hosts for episode 12 called Chemistry of Cosmetics. Today we will be discussing the chemistry of cosmetics.

Segment 1: Introduction to Cosmetics

What are cosmetics? 

(General cosmetics)

There are thousands of different cosmetic products on the market, all with different combinations of ingredients. In the United States alone, there are approximately 12,500 unique chemical ingredients approved for use in personal care products. A typical product could contain anything from 15–50 ingredients. Considering the average woman uses between 9 and 15 personal care products per day, researchers have estimated that, when combined with the addition of perfumes, women place around 515 individual chemicals on their skin each day through cosmetic use.

(History of cosmetics)

Let’s take it back to cosmetics in the olden times. Cosmetics were first seen in ancient Egypt, where makeup served as a marker of wealth believed to appeal to the gods. The elaborate eyeliner characteristic of Egyptian art appeared on men and women as early as 4000 BCE. Kohl, rouge, white powders to lighten skin tone, and malachite eye shadow (the green color that represented the gods Horus and Re) were all in popular use. By 3000 B.C men and women in China had begun to stain their fingernails with colors according to their social class, while Greek women used poisonous lead carbonate to achieve a pale complexion. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Cosmetics

(pigments/color)

A huge range of substances are used to create many appealing colors found in makeup. Mineral ingredients include iron oxide, mica flakes, manganese, chromium oxide, and coal tar. Natural colors can come from plants, such as beet powder.

Cosmetic pigments are broken up into two types, organic and inorganic. 

Inorganic pigments consist of iron oxides, chromium dioxides, ultramarines, manganese violet, white pigments, and pearlescent effects. They are used for their opaque color coverage, making them particularly suitable in face and eye makeup. They are usually duller in appearance than organic pigments. The transition metals in inorganic pigments form colorful ions, complexes, and compounds. This is due to the unfilled d orbitals these elements have. When transition metal ions form complexes and compounds with other molecules, they become colored. They bond to one or more neutral or negatively charged nonmetals, also known as ligands (li gens), changing the shape of d orbitals. Unabsorbed wavelengths of light pass through a complex and some light is also reflected back from a molecule. The combination of absorption, reflection, and transmission results in the apparent colors of the complexes.

(mica)

Shimmering effects can be created by coating mica with titanium dioxide and iron oxides to vary the refractive index observed in the finished product. Cosmetic mica typically comes from muscovite, also known as white mica. It naturally forms in flaky sheets, which are crushed into fine powders. The tiny particles in the powders refract (bend) light, which creates the shimmering effect common in many cosmetics. Various thicknesses of titanium dioxide are used to vary the color effects that are created through the different refractive angles that are created. These refractive angles can also manipulate the visual effects of the finished products. Additionally, iron oxides combined with the titanium dioxide coating can create a two-tone or luster effect. A variety of metallic and bright colors can be created using the pearlescent coating effect.

(Emulsions)

• Emulsions are also common in the chemistry of cosmetics. The majority of creams and lotions are emulsions. An emulsion can be defined simply as two immiscible fluids where one liquid is dispersed as fine droplets in the other. Typically, creating a lotion or cream takes three phases: a water phase, an oil phase, and a finishing phase that occurs after your emulsion has cooled. 
• But, oil and water don’t mix. This is because water is a polar molecule – its structure means that is has a positive charge one end and a negative charge the other end. Water molecules stick together because the positive end of one water molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. However, the structure of an oil molecule is non polar. Its charge is evenly balanced rather than having one positive and one negative end. This means oil molecules are more attracted to other oil molecules than water molecules, and water molecules are more attracted to each other than oil, so the two never mix.
• Since water and oil do not mix but stay separated, an additional agent (emulsifier) is necessary to form a homogenous mixture keeping water and oil together. Without an emulsifier, you can mix the water and oil together but as soon as you stop, they fall out and separate back to oil floating on water. 
• In cosmetic chemistry, we use ’emulsions’ to blend two immiscible (unblendable) liquids together. An emulsifier stabilizes an emulsion by increasing its kinetic stability. Emulsifiers work because their molecules have two parts: one part is attracted to water and one part is attracted to oil. There are two types of emulsions: Oil in Water and Water in Oil. An oil in water emulsion is composed of an oil phase dispersed in an aqueous one. It is known as a direct emulsion. Stabilization of O/W emulsion is often performed with hydrophilic-hydrophobic particles. The hydrophilic end of the emulsifier molecule has an affinity for water, and the hydrophobic end is drawn to the fat/oil. By vigorously mixing the emulsifier with the water and oil, it creates a stable emulsion. And then the water in oil emulsion is composed of an aqueous phase dispersed in the oil phase.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

We are one of the many women that wear makeup and use cosmetics, as we have many chemical ingredients on our bodies right now! I have about 273 chemicals (Sydney) in my body, and I have 219 chemicals (Hannah) in me. It is important for us to be cautious about what ingredients we put in our bodies, along with the types of chemicals and how they could affect us. In addition, it is important to know how some of the products we put on our faces are made.

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

• https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/chemistry-cosmetics
• https://www.vinmec.com/en/news/health-news/beauty/what-are-the-harmful-effects-of-lead-in-cosmetics/#:~:text=So%20why%20is%20there%20lead,is%20applied%20to%20most%20cosmetics.&text=In%20December%202016%2C%20the%20FDA,lipsticks%20and%20other%20cosmetic%20products.’
• http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Co-Di/Cosmetic-Chemistry.html
• https://www.britannica.com/story/why-did-we-start-wearing-makeup#:~:text=To%20understand%20the%20origin%20of,as%20early%20as%204000%20BCE.
• https://cosmetics.specialchem.com/selection-guide/color-selection-basics#:~:text=Inorganic%20pigments%20consist%20of%20iron,in%20appearance%20than%20organic%20pigments.
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559084/
• https://www.science-sparks.com/why-dont-oil-and-water-mix/#:~:text=The%20structure%20of%20an%20oil,so%20the%20two%20never%20mix.
• https://sciencenotes.org/transition-metal-ion-colors/

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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