Chemistry Connections

Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of AlchemyEpisode #13

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Cameron Scott/Anish Ponnam and we are your hosts for episode #19, The Chemistry of Alchemy. Today we will be discussing the chemical origins of one of the most famous myths of all time.

Segment 1: Introduction to Alchemy

What is the legend of the alchemists?:

- The history of the word alchemy comes from 332 BC when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and this led Greek concepts of Fire, Earth, Air, and Water to merge with the Egyptian science of the time. This merging of ideologies led way to concept of Khemia, which was the Greek word for Egypt. Finally, when the Arabs occupied Egypt in the 7th century, they decided to add the prefix “al-” to the word “Khemia” and this led to Alkhemia being made and is now believed to be the origin of the word Alchemy. 

- Although alchemy was thought to be originated in Egypt, China also developed their own method of alchemy through the use of minerals and plants which was thought to prolong life and also the use of exercise techniques, such as Qigong, to manipulate the chi or life force of the body. 

- India also developed their own version of alchemy which was very similar to that of China’s in which they wanted to use it to prolong life by purifying the body. Due to their curiosity with Alchemy, the indians were able to invent steel which is used in everyday construction as the framework of buildings. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Alchemy

When lead acetate and potassium iodide are mixed in solution, a precipitate of lead iodide is formed.

Explain how lead acetate was available during the alchemy times

• Produced by first burning elemental lead (creating lead oxide), then boiling it in acetic acid. In other words, vinegar.
• It has been documented that the romans used lead acetate as a sweetner, and the remains of those who lived during that time period, even Pope Clement II, have been found to indicate death by lead acetate poisoning.

Explain how Potassium iodide was available in the alchemy times

• KI has a high natural source in kelp, which draws in high concentrations of iodine from seawater during its photosynthesis process.
• KI can be extracted from seaweed by singeing it down to ash, then filtering the ash with distilled water to separate it from charcoal particles
• Mediterranean societies have been documented using seaweed for food and medical production
• It is plausible that an alchemist was able to derive KI from seaweed

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Pretty much its cool as hell and the solution you get from the experiment is beautiful. 

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

https://www.livescience.com/39314-alchemy.html

https://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html#:~:text=Alchemy%20was%20born%20in%20ancient,and%20a%20goal%20of%20immortality. - Brief History of Alchemy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate

Testing A Possible Origin To Alchemy: The Golden Rain Experiment

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry Behind Film CamerasEpisode #12  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Riya Mishra and Summer Wang and we are your hosts for episode #12 called the Chemistry Behind Film Development. Today we will be discussing what makes film cameras, such as Polaroids, or Canon Cameras, work.

Segment 1: Introduction to Film Cameras

In this episode, we’re going to be talking about how film is developed, and the chemical processes which occur every step of the way. Thanks to inventor and scientist Edwin H. Land, people can enjoy the look of a film picture without having to go through the process of developing film. Picture dark room photography, the low lights, the chemicals, and the long-long process before you get your photos. Now imagine that condensed into a tiny camera, weeks of work can be completed in a minute. This popular camera, made by popular companies like Polaroid and Instax provides a physical, and tangible memento in an instant. It seems like magic… but it’s all chemistry. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Film Cameras

When you hit ‘click’ on your camera, how does the photographic film develop on an atomic level? Firstly, it’s important to know that film is covered in a crystalline solid, usually a silver halide (so silver and a halogen). The most popular choice for film is silver bromide (AgBr). When photons from light come into contact with one of the grains, an electron is ejected from the valence levels of the bromine atoms, and onto the conduction band of the crystal. Then, the electron combines with a moving silver ion, and makes atomic silver. When this occurs multiple times, a clump of silver metal is produced. That atomic silver creates dark areas on the paper due to its color. The colorless ion Ag+ gains an electron to form solid silver. This seemingly simple reaction creates the dark colors that you see in your pictures. The formation of silver metal is directly proportional to the intensity of light. This may sound confusing, but it means that more light hitting the film means that area will appear darker when the film is developed. So, if anyone ever tells you to keep your picture in the dark as it develops, you know why.

For non-instant film cameras, once the picture is taken, film must be placed in a developer, or a chemical liquid which makes the concealed image on the film eventually visible. Developer itself can be chemically altered to adjust the rate at which the film develops-mainly with the usage of developing agents. Without developing agents, the process of film development could take hours, or even days! But, with some developing agents, like potassium hydroxide (KOH), this process can be sped up. You see, for film to develop at the quickest rate possible, the developing solution should have a pH between 10-11. This is a pretty high pH, meaning there needs to be a way for film developers to reach that pH without interfering with other parts of the developing process. KOH happens to be an extremely strong alkali, or a strong base. When KOH is added to the film, it produces an alkaline solution on top of the film. This raises the pH, bringing it to that 10-11 pH range which is optimal for development. So, by raising the pH, the entire process is sped up, and chemistry saves us tons of time!   

Segment 3: Personal Connections

What interested you in this topic? Why is it important? Anything else you’d like to share.

So, why did we choose this topic? 

• We actually have a story from last month which really got us thinking about how instant cameras work, and how film develops…

For me, I love movies, and I knew I wanted to research a topic related to filmmaking in some way. I loved learning about the most basic tool for creating a movie, a camera, and really understanding the ways it works on a chemical level. I’ve also always been fascinated by the film development that goes into the creation of older movies and pictures. These chemical processes have been used by filmmakers and photographers for hundreds of years, and it’s interesting to think that the basics of chemistry we’ve learned in school can explain the creation of such beautiful movies or photos.

For me, I felt interested in this topic due to my love for art. Photography is such an interesting and special form of art, and I knew I wanted to learn more about how it works. Also, I’m the kind of person who loves capturing different moments with my friends on my Polaroid, and it was nice to learn about an object that’s given me a physical reminder of some of my favorite memories. Getting to know what really happens when I hit that button on the top of the camera is super interesting!

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology-of-photography/Instant-picture-photography 

https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1085&context=senior_theses#:~:text=Photographic%20film%20and%20paper%20are,molecules%20to%20atomic%20metal%20silver. 

https://www.chemistryislife.com/the-chemistry-of-instant-polaroid-film 

https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/everyday-innovations/instant-film.htm 

https://dp.la/exhibitions/evolution-personal-camera/polaroid-era#:~:text=The%20inventor%20and%20founder%20of,these%20industries%20was%20instant%20photography. 

https://radiopaedia.org/articles/developer-solution?lang=us

https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Photographic_developer.html#:~:text=In%20film%20developing%2C%20photographic%20developer,silver%20in%20the%20gelatine%20matrix.

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of the Northern LightsEpisode #11  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Ben Pollara and my name is Megan Meng and we are your host for episode #11 called The Chemistry of the Northern Lights. Today we will be discussing why the Northern Lights occur and the chemistry behind it.

Segment 1: Introduction to Northern Lights

For our segment we will be discussing the Northern lights. Scientifically referred to as Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights are a natural light phenomenon that appear across Earth's great sky. Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky.

There are many myths behind the aurora borealis. The Eksimo tribes believed that they could summon the aurora to speak with their dead relatives. Inuit tribes feared the lights and carried knives to protect themselves against the aurora. But one thing is for sure now, all the myths behind the lights are FALSE. The science behind the Aurora Borealis is the TRUTH.

We will cover the origins of solar wind which send charged particles towards the earth. Then we will explain how those charged particles create collisions in our atmosphere that lead to the Northern Lights phenomenon.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Northern Lights

Although the Northern Lights seem too gigantic to comprehend, breaking each process down makes the Northern Lights seem more simple. There are charged particles, collisions, electron excitations, and light waves that all go into the creation of the beautiful Northern Lights.

• What is going on on the Sun?
• The Sun is made up of helium and hydrogen.
• The origin of solar reactions:

-Inside the sun, reactions are always happening. These reactions are called proton-proton fusion!! 

Originating in the core of the sun, a lone hydrogen atom fuses with another hydrogen atom. These two protons usually break apart, but sometimes the hydrogen atoms stay fused. Once fused, a single proton transforms into a neutron because of its weaker nuclear force. A third proton then fuses with the proton-neutron pair, creating a helium atom and releasing gamma rays, or sunlight. Finally, two helium atoms collide, which causes two protons to be released and a heavier isotope of Helium.

The two protons then travel towards Earth’s atmosphere, colliding with atoms such as Oxygen and Nitrogen that make up Earth’s upper atmosphere.

• . What are solar winds?
• Storms on the sun cause solar winds
• The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles that flows out of the Sun in all directions. The strength of the solar wind varies depending on the activity on the surface of the Sun. The Earth is mostly protected from the solar wind by its strong magnetic field.
• So is that why Northern Lights only happen in the north and south pole?
• Yes, actually Earth's magnetic field steers the charged particles towards the poles. The shape of Earth's magnetic field creates two auroral ovals above the North and South Magnetic Poles. This is where the charged particles from solar winds tend to be attracted to.
• Solar charged molecules strike oxygen atoms and nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere. When the molecules collide, the atoms light up because of the excitation of their electrons!!
• Electron excitation: What is it? 
• When an atom’s electrons are in the lowest energy level, then that atom is in its ground state.
• If the electrons absorb energy, they excite and move to a higher energy level.

In the example of the Northern Lights, a charged particle collides with Nitrogen and Oxygen atoms in the atmosphere, exciting their electrons. Once the electron reaches a higher energy level, it loses energy and then falls back to its original energy level. When an electron moves back to its ground state, a photon is emitted with the amount of energy that is the difference between the two energy levels. 

• If a photon with more energy is released (like if an electron moves from energy level 6 to energy level 1), a light color on the latter half of the spectrum will be shown, like purple or blue. But, if a photon with little energy is released (like if an electron moves from energy level 2 to energy level 1), a light color of red or orange will be shown.

COLORS! !!!!

Since the different atoms in the atmosphere have different electron configurations, they will release different amounts of energy when excited.

• Different colors:

1. Oxygen: Green and brownish-red colored lights.

2. Nitrogen: Blue and red colored lights.

3. Other Gasses: Helium and hydrogen emit purple and blue colored lights. There are also other gasses that get excited and emit light in the atmosphere. However, their wavelengths may not fall in the visible electromagnetic spectrum. 

• Other planets have different auroras This is because they have different atmospheres.
• Jupiter’s aurora is blue, and Saturn’s is purple and red. 
• Auroras are possible on any planet or moon where energetic particles are present in the atmosphere.

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Crazily enough the northern lights are almost always present, day and night. 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365 days a year. These lights are beautiful natural phenomena and give us a sense for how vast and interconnected our galaxy is. The interaction between the atmosphere and the small particles that make it create something so huge that we as puny humans can see it from Earth’s surface with the naked eye.

I would love to see the Northern Lights in my lifetime. They seem so peaceful, yet energetic. Do I believe in any of the old myths about the aurora? No. Do I still think the aurora has an interesting connection to the world we live in? Yes, completely. Although for the past 5 or so minutes we’ve broken down the Northern Lights to only a couple, microscopic reactions, the combination of those reactions give us an amazing sight to be seen. Who wouldn’t want to see the Northern Lights?

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

https://www.worldofchemicals.com/675/chemistry-articles/chemistry-of-northern-lights.html 

https://atoptics.co.uk/highsky/auror3.htm

https://www.hurtigruten.com/inspiration/experiences/the-northern-lights/myths-legends/  

https://www.space.com/15139-northern-lights-auroras-earth-facts-sdcmp.

https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/astronomy/item/what-are-the-northern-lights/

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Nuclear_fusion_in_the_Sun 

https://digestiblenotes.com/physics/electrons/excitation.php 

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Breaking BadEpisode #10  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Nathan and Lucas and we are your hosts for episode #10 called The Chemistry of breaking bad. Today we will be discussing how Mr Walter White creates his signature blue meth.

Segment 1: Introduction to Breaking Bad

In Breaking Bad there are many episodes where chemistry is incorporated into the show; I mean Walter himself is a chemistry teacher, but nevertheless, chemistry is what makes Breaking Bad, Breaking Bad. In this episode we are going to break down one of the most iconic propsin the show: the infamous blue crystals Walter cooks up

Breaking Bad is a popular tv show, in which the main character, Walter White, a High School Chemistry teacher, starts creating drugs and selling them to make cash after he is informed that he has cancer.

We are going to focus on how blue meth, methylamphetamine, is made and the psychological effects it has. Basically, this is a step-by-step guide on how to make meth. Jk jk, this is just a step-by-step guide, speculating how meth was made in the show

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Blue Meth

Throughout the story, two different methods of synthesis are used:

The first method Walter uses is pseudoephedrine, little Sud. Walter obtains little sud from the over-the-counter drug Sudafed

By combining red phosphorus—gathered from matchbox strike strips—and iodine, a person can create a strong acid removing the little cluster of hydrogen and oxygen that separates Sudafed from meth. Little suds molecular formula is C10H15NO, while the molecular formula of meth is C10H15N. So as you can see the molecular formula between these two are very close. 

• Reference connection to bonding
• This relates to bonding because Methamphetamine, as well as pseudoephedrine, contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O) atoms, which are elements commonly involved in covalent bonding.
• Reduction is part of this reaction.
• We are familiar with reduction from Redox reactions
• Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves the gaining of electrons by one of the atoms involved in the reaction between two chemicals.
• The pseudophedrine substance undergoes reduction and turns into N-methamphetamine..

The second method Walter uses is a synthesis method from Phenylacetone aka P2P.P2P has a similar shape to methamphetamine and Sudafed. It has a circular carbon loop called a phenyl ring, with a short carbon neck and a few chemical groups attached to it.

• It's like a "neck" because it is narrower and shorter compared to the other parts of the molecule.

 To convert P2P into meth, you just need to modify the attached chemical groups. However, P2P is hard to get because the DEA knows that P2P is made to make meth. So, White synthesizes his own P2P based on methylamine, acetic acid, and phenylacetic acid.

Methylamine is a colorless gas with a strong scent, frequently used in pharmaceuticals

Acetic acid is similar to Methylamine, except it's a liquid, with a similar scent to vinegar. It is frequently used in pharmaceuticals and condiments

Phenylacetic acid tends to be used in fragrances. It is also found naturally in fruits. 

• First: tube furnace
• A tube furnace is an electric heater thats used to conduct syntheses and purifications of compounds 
• Next: reductive amination I love animation
• Oh no, anyways
• Amination is the process by which an amine group is introduced into an organic molecule
• Reductive amination is a form of amination that involves the conversion of a carbonyl group to an amine via an intermediate imine. The carbonyl group is most commonly a ketone or an aldehyde. 
• Phenylacetic acid made by:
• First combining chlorine with acetone through alpha halogenation to get Alpha chloracetone
• Then combine benzene with Alpha clroacetone to make phenylacetic acid 
• FYI: Alpha Chloroacetone is an extremely powerful lachrymator (irritates eyes and makes tears flow). It makes regular old 'tear gas', and if ANY of it gets away from you, you'll wish to God it hadn't. Handling that stuff in an 'informal' setting is almost a guarantee that you will have a problem that will advertise your presence to anyone nearby. When he said, "for educational purposes only" he meant it.
• Sorry to inform you, but even if you did ignore my warning and try to make meth with this method, you won’t get you blue meth

Segment 3: Personal Connections

• We like watching breaking bad
• We want to learn about more lab equipment used to synthesize substances
• We like chemistry
• We like meth
• We think it's interesting, because we use it (allegedly)
• Personal curiosity
• Want to know how to make meth

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

​​https://www.popularmechanics.com/culture/tv/a9386/breaking-bad-fact-vs-fiction-walter-whites-secret-formula-15826137/ 

https://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/5416791/The_Chemistry_of_Breaking_Bad/

https://www.britannica.com/science/acetic-acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_furnace

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsThe Chemistry of WineEpisode #9  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Erin Goldsmith and Gianluca Procaccini, and we are your hosts for episode 9 of Chemistry Connections. Today we will be discussing the chemistry of red wine.

Segment 1: Introduction to Red Wine Production

In this episode, we will be covering the chemistry of red wine production. We will mainly be discussing the fermentation process that turns the grapes into wine, after the harvesting process, prior to bottling the wine.

To start, we’ll define some key terms:

Ethanol is the form of alcohol that is in wine. Typically in a range anywhere between 7-15 percent.

Tannic acid aka tannins are a naturally occurring molecule which cause a dry feeling in your mouth and are bitter when ingested. Tannins can be extracted from skins, seeds, bark, and plant stems.

Tartaric acid is the one of the components in wine that controls the overall acidity. Too much can cause an overly tart, sharp wine; while too little can cause a wine that is flat and bland.

Sulfites are the component of wine that act as a preservative and an agent that halts the fermentation process which can help protect the wine against potential oxidation or bacterial exposure which could occur at various stages of the winemaking process.

Malic acid is another acid found in grapes that is primarily responsible for sour flavors, its concentration decreases as a grape ripens.

Also, we’ll discuss the origins of wine. Wine was first created in Georgia in 6000 BCE by accident. When stored grapes ended up getting fermented by naturally occuring yeast. After this, yeast became domesticated and spread throughout the Caucuses and then moved into Europe. 

Segment 2: Personal Connections

Erin was interested in researching the chemistry of wine after watching Star Trek Picard. In the first season, Captain Jean-Luc Picard has retired to the French countryside, and now makes wine. The quality of Picard’s wine becomes a running joke in later seasons. 

Gianluca is interested in researching winemaking because of the 100 Days winemaking simulator video game. 

Wine production is an important part of many lives. The wine industry spans multiple countries, continents, and cultures. It is a beverage that has historically brought people together, and has played a vital role in community building across many centuries and places. Wine, along with other forms of alcohol, was used as a main source of water before water purification methods were perfected. It has historical significance that can not be defined but has provided the lifeblood for many businesses, religious ceremonies, and social gatherings.

Segment 3: The Chemistry Behind Red Wine Production

We will be discussing the process behind wine production which include the following steps. 

• Crushing
• Primary Fermentation 
• Cold Stabilization 
• Secondary/Malolactic Fermentation 

The purpose of this process is to release the juice from the grapes, and use the sugar in the fruit to produce the alcohol found in wine. The fermentation process is initiated by certain types of yeast, which is controlled in steps like primary fermentation, secondary/malolactic fermentation. The levels of fermentation can affect the taste and alcohol level of the final product. 

2 AP Chemistry topics discussed in this episode:

• When grapes begin the fermentation process, many acids are released in the form of tannic, malic, and tartaric acids. These acids help contribute to the different aspects of red wine such as bitterness, sourness and acidity respectively.
• Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substances through the action of enzymes. Yeast helps convert the sugar in grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide during the fermentation process of winemaking

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/wine-chemistry
• https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/chemistry-wine-part-1#:~:text=The%20answer%20is%20simple%E2%80%94chemistry,compounds%2C%20pigment%20compounds%20and%20tannins
• https://www.terravenos.com/trellis/acid-wine 
• https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/chemistry-wine-part-2-fermentation 
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winemaking
• https://www.masterclass.com/articles/learn-about-wine-what-are-tannins
• https://www.extension.iastate.edu/wine/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/compositionofgrapes.pdf 

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of SodaEpisode #8  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Neha and Nikhil and we are your hosts for episode #8 called Chemistry of Soda. Today we will be discussing basically that: the chemistry involved in soda.

Segment 1: Introduction to Soda

• Soda is a fizzy beverage that people love to drink, ourselves included
• There are many different kinds of soda. To name a couple: 
• Coke
• Fanta
• Root beer
• Pepsi 
• And more
• You can find it at any local grocery store
• It is an enjoyable drink due to its carbonation and the sting it has on your tongue, which we will go into depth about shortly

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Soda

Topic 1: Equilibrium

• First, let’s talk about the fizz in soda
• Citric acid reacts with the carbonate in bicarbonate of soda to form carbon dioxide gas 
• These bubbles of carbon dioxide gas are what make your drink fizzy
• These molecules of carbon dioxide are thoroughly mixed and dissolved into the water in the soda pop
• This is known as carbonation
• Regarding carbonation, it is important to note: 
• Carbon dioxide doesn’t easily dissolve in water under everyday conditions
• Manufacturers have to increase the pressure in the can and keep it at a low temperature so water molecules can trap lots of carbon dioxide molecules
• They also use pressure to put more gas in water than it could normally hold at that temperature
• Therefore, if the soda can warms up a bit or the can is shaken, pressure goes up and extra gas is ready to come up
• So opening the can releases pressure, and soda shoots out
• This is why the can is sealed so that it is airtight. That way, the inside of the can maintains enough pressure to prevent extra carbon dioxide molecules from escaping
• Talking about the can being sealed airtight, inside the can, carbon dioxide exists in two forms: some dissolves in water and some sits in gas form between the top of the can and the liquid
• When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, water and gaseous carbon dioxide react to form a dilute solution of carbonic acid (H2CO3)
• This reaction is reversible
• When the can of soda is sealed, the high pressure inside the can forces the chemical reaction to the right (forward reaction)
• This forward reaction continues until equilibrium is reached
• However, once you open can, pressure is released and the reaction shifts to the left (so reverse reaction occurs)
• In the reverse reaction, water and carbon dioxide are formed
• This is because the gaseous carbon dioxide at the top of the can escapes when you open the can
• The can is no longer under pressure if it is open, so dissolved carbon dioxide starts coming out of the solution (reverse reaction)
• Bubbles form which release the carbon dioxide into the air
• The escaping carbon dioxide lowers the concentration of carbon dioxide in the drink, so carbonic acid turns back to carbon dioxide and water which results in a new eqm
• Now that we’re on the topic of bubbles that release carbon dioxide, let's talk about the fizz of soda going away with time
• I think it’s known to most people, excluding Nikhil, that fizzy soda tastes better than flat soda
• In a fizzy drink, dilute carbonic acid creates a slight burning sensation on your tongue, which is enjoyable to some
• This doesn’t happen with a flat drink though
• Let’s start with how the drink becomes flat
• If you open a soda can or bottle, the carbon dioxide begins to come out of the soda and into the air
• Eventually, enough carbon dioxide will come out and the soda will become flat
• When soda is flat, carbon dioxide continually escapes which is why there is no stinging sensation when soda is flat
• Let’s recall the reaction from earlier where water and carbon dioxide react to form carbonic acid
• As carbon dioxide bubbles away from liquid, the reactants and products move again towards equilibrium which causes the reverse reaction to take over since carbon dioxide, a reactant, is going away so the reaction proceeds in that direction to create more of it
• This causes carbonic acid concentration to get lower and lower
• Therefore, as the amount of carbonic acid in the beverage goes down, so does the soda’s ability to bring about the tingling sensation on your tongue

Topic 2: Acidity/pH

• Now that we’ve talked about carbonic acid, let’s talk about other acids in soda
• Phosphoric acid and citric acid are added as preservatives and flavor enhancers
• Citric acid specifically can bind to calcium and leach it out of teeth, which is dangerous
• Every soda on the market has a pH below 4, most between 2.5 to 3.5
• The acidic pH of soda makes it dangerous for teeth
• This is because acid is an instrumental part of the cavity process
• The acidic pH of soda gives bacteria even more power to cause cavities by lowering the pH in the mouth and weakening enamel, 
• Eventually, the enamel gets weak to the point where it cannot fight the acid attacks of bacteria well
• Sugar in soda also feeds bacteria, which produce acid that dissolves enamel
• These sugars in soda include a mixture of a sugar called glucose and another called fructose
• These wo sugars attach to each other to make another sugar called sucrose
• Anyway, back to the acidity of soda
• The acidity of soda and absorption of carbon dioxide both can also cause a significant decrease in blood pH
• This lower blood pH can possibly be associated with many diseases (including incurable cancer) because the body needs an alkaline environment for good health

Segment 3: Personal Connections

• Soda is one of my favorite drinks (in my top 3)
• So we thought it would be cool to take a dive into the chemistry behind soda, especially with the fizz since Neha likes fizzy soda but Nikhil does not
• It was interesting to find out how the fizz works and why it fades away as time goes on
• We really just chose it because it was a fun topic and soda is still something we drink weekly so it kind of is still a big part of our lives, even if it isn’t in a significant way

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

https://www.york.ac.uk/res/sots/activities/itsagas.htm#:~:text=The%20citric%20acid%20reacts%20with,what%20make%20your%20drink%20fizzy. 

https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/adventures-in-chemistry/secret-science-stuff/soda-pop.html

https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-in-context/chemistry-pop  

http://ijariie.com/AdminUploadPdf/Chemistry_of_Soft_Drinks_ijariie11653.pdf

https://www.prodentcare.com/blog/why-soda-is-terrible-for-your-teeth#:~:text=What%20makes%20soda%20acidic%3F,as%20preservatives%20and%20flavor%20enhancers. 

https://www.premierdentalohio.com/blog/effects-of-drinking-pop-soda-on-dental-health#:~:text=Acidic%20pH,battery%20acid%20is%20about%201.0. 

https://www.medindia.net/patients/lifestyleandwellness/colas-are-bad-for-health-in-the-long-run.htm#:~:text=Carbon%20dioxide%20is%20the%20end,the%20blood%20making%20it%20acidic. 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsQuantum ChemistryEpisode #7  

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Owen Mahan and I am your host for episode #7 called Quantum Chemistry. Today I will be discussing how the effects of quantum mechanics lead to chemistry.

Segment 1: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

• Quantum mechanics is the mechanism behind the world on the smallest scale
• QM acts on the smallest scale, classical mechanics on our scale, relativity on a large scale
• Quantum comes from the fact that things are quantized
• Energy, charge, etc can only have certain integer multiples of quantities
• Schrodinger equation (or the wave function) means the values of quantum systems are only probabilistic
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle means you can’t know everything about a system
• Pauli exclusion principle says that multiple of the same fermion can’t exist at the same time
• Fermions have ½ integer spin (electrons, quarks, nucleons by extension, etc) while bosons have whole integer spin (photons, gluons, etc)

Segment 2: Quantum Effects on Chemistry

• Bonding/Potential Energy
• All chemical interactions are based on quantum mechanics
• Bonding occurs because of low potential energy states and electron clouds form because of that
• Metallic bonding was used to discover QM via photoelectric effect (Einstein)
• A solution to the schrodinger equation using Born-Oppenheimer methods is what gives the energy vs nuclear distance graph (as seen on the AP exam)
• Overlapping is the process by which electron clouds enter a newly favorable state as atoms bond
• Resonance structures are superpositions of electrons within molecules which create multiple simultaneous overlapping cloud structures
• Orbitals occur because of spin mechanics as ½ spin particles cannot be indistinguishable, so a max of two electrons (½ and -½ spin respectively) can occupy an orbital
• Helium superfluid occurs because He-4 atoms have 0 combined spin so can fall into the same states
• Neutron stars (the densest things in the universe) occur because the pressure of fermions not wanting to occupy the same state barely overcomes the gravitational pressure
• Entropy - 34 min
• Entropy can be thought of as an effect of quantum mechanics
• The potential number of states determines the entropy of a system
• A system seemingly in perfect order at a moment in time can still have the same entropy as a “disordered” permutation of the same system
• Gas mixtures can at one point be perfectly separated but if it is not locked into that state it has the same entropy as any mixed state of the same system
• It is the information “hidden” by the system, called Von Neumann entropy
• Interesting applications include black holes, as information is seemingly lost
• Resolved by the idea that entropy is hidden information on the surface area of the black hole which is released via Hawking radiation

Segment 3: Personal Connections

• Fundamental physics is the most important branch of science to pushing technology forward
• Relates to literally all other fields of science
• I find it very interesting because there is so much depth you can go into
• Explains questions about other fields
• Quantum chemistry is especially interesting because being able to understand what creates chemical phenomena allows for a better understanding of the phenomena themselves

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/photoelectric-effect

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/02._Fundamental_Concepts_of_Quantum_Mechanics/Heisenberg's_Uncertainty_Principle

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Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Snake VenomEpisode # 6 Segment 1: Introduction to Snake Venoms

• 2 Main categories of venomous snakes
• Elapids 
• Elapids
• Any of 300 species of venomous snakes (all venomous)
• Short, fixed fangs at the front of the Jaw
• Long, slender bodies with small heads
• Mostly lay eggs, but a few do bear living young (largely only Australian species)
• Bite with a downward strike, and often chew prey to envenomate
• Bite relatively painless, but can kill quickly through paralysis of heart and lung muscles
• Cobra relatives
• Talk about fang structure
• General characteristics
• Viperids (Vipers)
• Over 200 related species
• Long, hollow fangs that are folded back to the roof of the mouth until striking
• Some species, known as pit vipers, have a temperature-sensing organ that allows them to hunt warm-blooded prey even when they cannot see
• Large venom glands lead to a more triangular or pear-shaped head 
• Fang structure and general characteristics

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Snake Venoms

Have a natural transition into an example… no need to say “segment 2”

Provide detailed explanations of the chemistry that is related to your topic.

Remember that you must have a minimum of 2 topics from ap chem that you can explain here as related to your episode

• Viperid and elapid venom mechanism of action
• Viperid - hemolytic and necrotic
• How and why
• Specific example - Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
• Affects blood circulation, causing severe tissue and organ damage.
• Certain proteins prevent blood coagulation by preferentially binding to prothrombin, cleaving it into meizothrombin, which cannot be used along the typical clotting pathway
• Leads to catastrophic internal bleeding and hemmorhage, which in turn leads to shock when too much blood has left the circulatory system
• Reversed with antivenom
• Elapid - typically neurotoxic
• How and why
• Discuss neurochemistry of neurotoxins, why toxin binds to receptors
• Go in detail with one example - Inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)
• LD50 of 0.025 mg/kg in mice, 0.01 mg/kg in bovine serum
• Venom primarily kills through neurotoxins
• Presynaptic - paradoxin
• Blocks release of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter responsible for muscle contraction
• Depolarizes the neuron, preventing the firing of action potentials
• One of the most potent, if not most potent, presynaptic neurotoxins known to man, but still largely unknown in function
• Believed to fuse ACh-containing vesicles to the presynaptic membrane, and prevent recycling of already-used vesicles
• Affects the permeability of the phospholipid membrane through altering structure as it binds to the surface.
• Postsynaptic - oxylepitoxin 1, alpha oxytoxin 1, alpha-scutoxin 1
• Bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in muscles antagonistically, causing inhibition of the receptor
• Prevent the reception of a signal to move
• Two types of receptors, nicotinic and muscarinic
• Nicotinic in central nervous system, muscarinic in peripheral nervous system and associated with autonomous nervous system and organs
• Only treatment is to use a mechanical ventilator and administer carbachol

Segment 3: Personal Connections

• I have always been interested in snakes, especially

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

List your sources here. Make sure they are linked. Wikipedia cannot count for more than 50% of your sources.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0028390807000056 

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17313963/

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "elapid". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Jun. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/animal/elapid . Accessed 24 May 2023. 

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "viper". Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Apr. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/animal/viper-snake . Accessed 24 May 2023.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echis_carinatus#Venom 

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16879898/ 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC310718/#:~:text=These%20potent%20toxins%20bind%20specifically,blocking%20the%20excitation%20of%20muscles. 

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/866568/ 

Music Credits

Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of AntacidsEpisode #5

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, our names are Janya and Arya and we are your hosts for episode #5 called The Chemistry of Antacids, which is also what we will be discussing today. 

Segment 1: Introduction to Antacids

For this segment we are going to be talking about what antacids are, and in what situations they can be used for. 

Do you know what antacids are?

Not really….

Well, they are medicines used to treat heartburn and indigestion!

But what is heartburn exactly? Is you’re heart on fire?

Noooo. Heartburn is caused by excess stomach acid that travels up the esophagus.

Sounds gross!

Well, if you want to reduce them, you can reduce the amount of acid in your stomach, by eating less acidic foods for example. 

Some acidic foods include tomatoes, oranges, and… chocolate. (yes if you want to have less heartburns, you have to eat less chocolate). 

Right, so when you eat less of these foods, the acid won’t have a chance to travel up the esophagus. I get it now!

Antacids also do the same thing, because it reduces the amount of acid that’s in your stomach (technically, the excess acid) 

And your problem is solved!

But not really, because this didn’t treat the actual cause of heartburns or indigestion 

• They usually relieve symptoms for a few hours, so it is not a permanent solution
• Antacids can be found in liquid form as well as tablet form, but liquid form works better (don’t really need to say)
• Antacids helps to relieve a variety of symptoms such as a burning sensation/pain in your chest/stomach, acidic taste in your mouth, feeling of being bloated. 
• More serious problems which antacids can help treat include: acid reflux (GERD), stomach lining inflammation (gastritis), and stomach ulcers
• Some common active ingredients in antacids include aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and salts (sodium).
• These active ingredients help raise the pH level in the stomach, reducing the acidity and providing temporary relief from symptoms. Antacids typically provide quick but short-term relief and are not intended for long-term use. It's important to follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer or consult a healthcare professional for appropriate usage and dosage recommendations.

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Antacids

1. Acid-base reactions (Active ingredients) 
2. There are lots of ways to define acids, bases and acid-base reactions. One of them is called Bronsted-Lowry theory and involves the transfer of a proton. The acid and base react together to form a conjugate base and acid, which remains in the stomach to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach. The bronsted-lowry acid donates a proton, while the bronsted-lowry base accepts a proton, so the conjugate base will accept the proton and neutralize the acid. Often times, these reactions produce a gas (ex: carbon dioxide) and water. In an antacid, the weak base neutralizes the acid that’s in your stomach by stopping the enzyme which creates acid for the break down of food for digestion (known as pepsin). Antacids usually contain various active ingredients, such as aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate. Almost all antacids act on excess stomach acid by neutralizing it with these weak bases. Strong bases aren’t used because it disrupts the pH of important organs in the body, which could lead to the damage of these organs
3. CaCO3 ​​​​​​(s) + HCl (aq) → H2CO3 (carbonic acid) (aq) + CaCl2 (calcium chloride) (aq)
4. H2CO3 (aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
5. This is the reaction between calcium carbonate (an active ingredient in Tums) and HCl
6. The active ingredients that were mentioned help to maintain the pH stability of the stomach. They help to raise the pH level in the stomach by reducing the acidity and providing relief from the symptoms. 
7. pH scale (Buffer)  
8. The pH scale determines how acidic or basic water is. The range is 0 to 14, with 7 representing neutrality. Acidity is indicated by pH values below 7, whereas baseness is shown by pH values above 7. In reality, pH is a measurement of the amount of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the water.
9. A buffer is a substance that can withstand a pH shift when acidic or basic substances are added. Small additions of acid or base can be neutralized by it, keeping the pH of the solution largely constant. 
10. A buffer's job in the body is to keep both intracellular and extracellular pH levels within a relatively small range and to resist against pH variations brought on by both internal and external factors.
11. The buffer that is created in your stomach after taking an antacid table keeps the pH in your stomach acid from changing significantly. That buffer is compose of two particles which are HCO3 (bicarbonate) and CO3 (carbonate)
12. Antacids contain a buffer that maintains the pH of the stomach. Most of the antacids have a net pH above 7 for the sole purpose of maintaining pH stability in the stomach. 

Segment 3: Personal Connections

Both of us have an interest in medicine, and this topic interests us as we have had personal experience with using an antacid. We have used it for indigestion and heartburns previously, and has worked very well. Another indirect use of it has been to treat mouth ulcers. 

When I had a mouth ulcer, I used antacid by dabbing some on the mouth ulcer, and it worked almost immediately. The pain significantly reduced, and the swelling also reduced over time. My mouth felt chalky due to the base in the antacid, but it significantly helped with reducing the symptoms. It’s important because many people experience indigestion, heartburn, and ulcer everyday, so it’s good that this medicine can treat a very common problem. 

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

• https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/23076-antacid
• https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/heartburn/symptoms-causes/syc-20373223 
• http://www.chem.latech.edu/~deddy/chem104/104Antacid.htm 
• https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Riverland_Community_College/CHEM_1000_-_Introduction_to_Chemistry_(Riverland)/17%3A_Acids_and_Bases/17.08%3A_Acids_and_Bases_in_Industry_and_in_Daily_Life 

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Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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Hopewell Valley Student Podcasting NetworkChemistry ConnectionsChemistry of Cotton Candy Grapes Episode # 4

Welcome to Chemistry Connections, my name is Olivia, and I am your host for episode 4 called The Chemistry of Cotton Candy Grapes. Today, I will be discussing what acids are within a grape and how cotton candy grapes are made.

Segment 1: Introduction to Cotton Candy Grapes

Cotton Candy grapes are a variation of green grapes whose flavor is compared to the carnival fluffy, sweet confection cotton candy. 

The process of turning a regular grocery store grape into a cotton candy grape is called hybridization. The common belief among people is that grapes are produced by injecting artificial flavoring; however, the cotton candy taste is through plant breeding. Hybridization happens between two different grape species; a type of Concord-like grape (like grapes used in Welch's jams, jellies, and juices) and a variety of Vinis vi nif er uh, an everyday grape found at grocery stores across the country. 

A Horticulturist is responsible for this process. Horticulturists are specialists with training in plant production and development who monitor and enhance the growth of high-quality food plants, decorative plants, and medicinal herbs. 

These medium-sized, oval, or oblong grapes are seasonal fruit. They are also lacking seeds by default. We'll cover everything that makes people wonder about the odd characteristics of these grapes, including their structure and sugar content. 

Segment 2: The Chemistry Behind Grapes

First, let's discuss what a grape really is. Grapes are made up of 70-80% water and are made up of acids which include tartaric, malic, and citric acid. Green grapes are more acidic (pH: 2.4). Red grapes (5.5-7) can be neutral. Acids contribute to overall acidity, giving a refreshing and tangy taste. 

But what is an acid? An acid is created when substances dissolved in water increase the H+ ions in the solution. Donation of protons by acids (bronsted-Lowry) pH: range 0-14. Acids are less than 7 on a pH scale, and this is determined by H+ concentration. They also have different elements, such as their corrosive nature (ex rocks) and ability to conduct electricity (can conduct when dissolved in H2O). The H acts as a proton donor lowering pH. Acid-Base reactions (react with alkaline substances products are salts and water) (neutralization). There 7 strong acids, and these completely dissociate in H2O, while weak acids only partially dissociate (lower concentration of H+)

Grapes have a pH value that ranges from 1.9 to 4, which makes them an acidic fruit. These acids are at their highest concentration when the grapes are unripe, and acid content decreases as they mature. One of the acids in grapes, malic acid, has an ionizable hydrogen on each end of the molecule. This H dissociates and attaches to water molecules, making H3O+ which the tongue then detects as a sour taste.  

Malic acid has 2 ionizable H’s, but why do only those hydrogens break off? First off, the dissociation of H in malic acid or any acid depends on acid strength. A diprotic acid (2 acidic H atoms) can dissociate in aq solution. Because this is a weak acid, and weak acids only partially dissociate, lowering the concentration. Both hydrogens have 2 different Ka values; Ka1 is larger than Ka2, so first, H dissociates faster than other. 

In 2011, cotton candy grapes were first introduced to grocery stores. Vitis vinifera, sugars, and esters are responsible for giving their sweet flavor. Glucose and fructose are the main sugar compounds in the juice of grapes. At a ripening stage, the ratio of glucose to fructose is about 1:1; in overripe grapes, the concentration of fructose is greater than that of glucose.

Esters are mainly responsible for the flavoring of cotton candy grapes. An ester is a compound derived from an acid (ethyl acetate) which can be organic or inorganic. H or OH is replaced by R (organyl group), which represents any carbon or carbon chunk. Organic compounds are formed by the reaction between alcohol and acid, contributing to their flavor. Common esters in cotton candy grapes include ethyl butyrate (fruity aromma-reminscent of pineapple) and Ethyl hexanoate- sweet notes. During the ripening process, enzymes that are present in the fruit catalyze the formation of esters through alcohol molecules (naturally present). The presence of specific esters in cotton candy grapes can vary due to genetic factors, environmental conditions, and agricultural practices. Higher levels of esters in different cotton candy flavors are due to sugars and acids, which contribute to the overall taste. 

Ethyl butyrate, C6H12O2, is bonded together through covalent bonding. 

Pi bonds- overlap atomic orbitals, C double bond O 1 pi, 1 sigma, Sp2 hybridized orbital of O2, Unhybridized p orbital overlaps making pi bonds causing reactivity and chemical properties, allows rotation around sigma bond and behavior

Sigma bonds → C, H, O   A sigma (σ) bond is a type of covalent chemical bond formed by overlapping atomic orbitals along the axis connecting the nuclei of two atoms. It is the strongest type of covalent bond and is commonly found in single bonds between atoms.

multiple bonds can be formed between atoms, such as double or triple bonds. These involve the formation of at least one sigma bond and other pi (π) bonds, which result from the parallel overlap of p orbitals. Sigma bonds are always formed first before the pi bonds. 

C-c 

C-H

C-O (double bonds) →Allow atoms to share electrons, makes covalent bonds 

C chain is tetrahedral 

C chain on the end is tetrahedral 

O-C double bonds, polar. O is negative C is positive

The overall molecule is nonpolar 

C-H bonds, C-C bonds, C-O, bonds, O-H bonds

Electrons around O (4)

Segment 3: Personal Connections

My favorite fruit is grapes, and I wanted to know more about the chemistry behind them. I also thought cotton candy grapes were manufactured and injected with flavoring, so I wanted to know how they were made. 

Thank you for listening to this episode of Chemistry Connections. For more student-ran podcasts and digital content, make sure that you visit www.hvspn.com. 

Sources:

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35630586/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Candy_grapes

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/

https://www.mic.com/life/how-are-cotton-candy-grapes-made-the-mad-science-behind-the-curiously-delicious-designer-fruit-18743823

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/malic_acid

https://www.google.com/search?q=what+are+cotton+candy+grapes&rlz=1CASFKO_enUS944US947&oq=what+are+cotton+candy&aqs=chrome.0.0i512j69i57j0i512l8.4730j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&safe=strict

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Warm Nights by @LakeyInspired 

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