Existing drugs can sometimes be repurposed to treat rare diseases. But making that match can be hard — and the financial incentives are weak. Guest host Steve Levitt tries to solve the puzzle.

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When Richard Thaler first published Nudge, the world was just starting to believe in his brand of behavioral economics. In this 2021 episode, we ask: How has nudge theory held up in the face of a global financial meltdown, a pandemic, and other existential crises?

• SOURCES:
  • Richard Thaler, professor of economics at the University of Chicago.

• RESOURCES:
  • Nudge: The Final Edition, by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein (2021).
  • Sludge: What Stops Us from Getting Things Done and What to Do About It, by Cass Sunstein (2021).
  • "Sludge: Americans Spend 11.4 Billion Hours Filling Out Federal Paperwork," by Cass Sunstein (Big Think, 2021).
  • "Carbon Taxation in Sweden," by Government Offices of Sweden Ministry of Finance (2021).
  • "The Climate Club: How to Fix a Failing Global Effort," by William Nordhaus (Foreign Affairs, 2020).
  • "Organ Donation: Presumed Consent and Focusing on What Matters," by Rebecca Brown (The Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, 2017).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Sludge," series by Freakonomics Radio (2025).
  • “People Aren’t Dumb. The World Is Hard. (Ep. 340 Rebroadcast),” by Freakonomics Radio (2018).

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The science says no, at least not in the athletic sense. But the psychic benefits can be large — just ask former N.F.L. star Ricky Williams. He says athletes should consider cannabis a healing drug, not a party drug. Even the N.F.L. is starting to agree. (Part two of a two-part series.)

• SOURCES:
  • Angela Bryan, professor, associate chair for faculty development in the department of psychology and neuroscience at the University of Colorado, Boulder.
  • Ricky Williams, former N.F.L. running back, founder of Highsman.

• RESOURCES:
  • "Using A Lab On Wheels To Study Weed From Dispensaries," by Science Friday (2024).
  • "Exercise-induced euphoria and anxiolysis do not depend on endogenous opioids in humans," by Michael Siebers, Sarah Biedermann, Laura Bindila, Beat Lutz, and Johannes Fuss (Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2021).
  • "Endocannabinoids mediate runner’s high," by Sudhakaran Prabakaran (Science Signaling, 2015).
  • "Cannabis and Exercise Science: A Commentary on Existing Studies and Suggestions for Future Directions," by Angela Bryan, Arielle Gilman, and Kent Hutchison (Sports Medicine, 2015).
  • Run Ricky Run, documentary (2010).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Is America Switching from Booze to Weed?" series by Freakonomics Radio (2024).

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In sports, the rules are meant to be sacrosanct. But when it comes to performance-enhancing drugs, the slope is super-slippery. (Part one of a two-part series.)

• SOURCES:
  • April Henning, associate professor of international sport management at Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland.
  • Aron D'Souza, founder of the Enhanced Games.
  • Floyd Landis, former professional cyclist, founder of Floyd's of Leadville.
  • Louisa Thomas, staff writer at The New Yorker.

• RESOURCES:
  • Doping: A Sporting History, by April Henning and Paul Dimeo (2022).
  • "The Man Who Brought Down Lance Armstrong," by Matt Hart (The Atlantic, 2018).
  • Cycle of Lies: The Fall of Lance Armstrong, by Juliet Macur (2014).
  • Positively False: The Real Story of How I Won the Tour de France, by Floyd Landis (2007).
  • Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll (1865).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Has Lance Armstrong Finally Come Clean?" by Freakonomics Radio (2018).

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They used to be the N.F.L.’s biggest stars, with paychecks to match. Now their salaries are near the bottom, and their careers are shorter than ever. In this updated episode from 2025, we speak with an analytics guru, an agent, an economist, and some former running backs to understand why.

• SOURCES:
  • Brian Burke, sports data scientist at ESPN.
  • Roland Fryer, professor of economics at Harvard University.
  • LeSean McCoy, former running back in the N.F.L., co-host for Fox's daily studio show, "The Facility."
  • Robert Smith, former running back for the Minnesota Vikings, N.F.L. analyst.
  • Robert Turbin, former running back, N.F.L. analyst for CBS Sports HQ, college football announcer.
  • Jeffery Whitney, founder and president at The Sports & Entertainment Group.

• RESOURCES:
  • "The Economics of Running Backs," by Roland Fryer (Wall Street Journal, 2024).
  • Confessions of a Hero-Worshiper, by Stephen Dubner (2007).
  • The Rest of the Iceberg: An Insider’s View on the World of Sports and Celebrity, by Robert Smith (2004).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Roland Fryer Refuses to Lie to Black America," by Freakonomics Radio (2022).
  • "Why Does the Most Monotonous Job in the World Pay $1 Million?" by Freakonomics Radio (2022).

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For 50 years, the healthcare industry has been trying (and failing) to harness the power of artificial intelligence. It may finally be ready for prime time. What will this mean for human doctors — and the rest of us? (Part four of “The Freakonomics Radio Guide to Getting Better.”)

• SOURCES:
  • Bob Wachter, professor, chair of the department of medicine at the University of California, San Francisco.
  • Pierre Elias, cardiologist, assistant professor of biomedical informatics at Columbia University, medical director for artificial intelligence at NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital.

• RESOURCES:
  • A Giant Leap: How AI Is Transforming Healthcare and What That Means for Our Future, by Bob Wachter (2026).
  • "Epic Systems (MyChart)," by Acquired (2025).
  • "Detecting structural heart disease from electrocardiograms using AI," by Pierre Elias and Timothy Poterucha (Nature, 2025).
  • "What Are the Risks of Sharing Medical Records With ChatGPT?" by Maggie Astor (New York Times, 2025).
  • "Will Generative Artificial Intelligence Deliver on Its Promise in Health Care?" by Bob Wachter and Erik Brynjolfsson (JAMA, 2023).
  • The Digital Doctor: Hope, Hype, and Harm at the Dawn of Medicine’s Computer Age, by Bob Wachter (2015).

• EXTRAS:
  • "The Doctor Won’t See You Now," by Freakonomics Radio (2025).
  • "How to Stop Worrying and Love the Robot Apocalypse (Update)," by Freakonomics Radio (2024).

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Zeke Emanuel (a physician, medical ethicist, and policy wonk) has some different ideas for how to lead a healthy and meaningful life. It starts with ice cream. (Part three of “The Freakonomics Radio Guide to Getting Better.”)

• SOURCES:
  • Zeke Emanuel, oncologist, bioethicist, professor at the University of Pennsylvania.

• RESOURCES:
  • Eat Your Ice Cream: Six Simple Rules for a Long and Healthy Life, by Zeke Emanuel (2026).
  • "Nutrition Science’s Most Preposterous Result," by David Merritt Johns (The Atlantic, 2023).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Is Ozempic as Magical as It Sounds?" by Freakonomics Radio (2024).
  • "The Suddenly Diplomatic Rahm Emanuel," by Freakonomics Radio (2023).
  • "Ari Emanuel Is Never Indifferent," by Freakonomics Radio (2023).
  • "What’s the “Best” Exercise?" by Freakonomics Radio (2014).

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After five years, Levitt is ending People I (Mostly) Admire, and will start hosting the occasional Freakonomics Radio episode. We couldn’t be happier.

• SOURCES:
  • Steve Levitt, co-author of Freakonomics and host of People I (Mostly) Admire.

• RESOURCES:
  • "How to Help Kids Succeed," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2025).
  • "Feeling Sound and Hearing Color," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2024).
  • "Richard Dawkins on God, Genes, and Murderous Baby Cuckoos," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2024).
  • "Arnold Schwarzenegger Has Some Advice for You," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2024).
  • "Drawing from Life (and Death)," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2023).
  • "Yuval Noah Harari Thinks Life is Meaningless and Amazing," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2022).
  • "Is This the Future of High School?," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2022).
  • "Does Death Have to Be a Death Sentence?," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2022).
  • "Sal Khan: 'If It Works for 15 Cousins, It Could Work for a Billion People.'" by People I (Mostly) Admire (2021).
  • "Jared Diamond on the Downfall of Civilizations — and His Optimism for Ours," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2021).
  • "Amanda & Lily Levitt Share What It’s Like to be Steve’s Daughters," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2021).
  • "How Rahm Emanuel Would Run the World," by Freakonomics Radio (2020).
  • The Levitt Lab.

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It regulates 20 percent of the U.S. economy, and its commissioner has an aggressive agenda — faster drug approvals, healthier food, cures for diabetes and cancer. How much can he deliver? (Part two of “The Freakonomics Radio Guide to Getting Better.”)

• SOURCES:
  • Marty Makary, commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration.

• RESOURCES:
  • "Clinical Trials Affected by Research Grant Terminations at the National Institutes of Health," by Vishal Patel, Michael Liu, and Anupam Jena (JAMA Internal Medicine, 2025).
  • "What the evidence tells us about Tylenol, leucovorin, and autism," by Matthew Herper (STAT, 2025).
  • "I Run the F.D.A. Pharma Ads Are Hurting Americans." by Marty Makary (New York Times, 2025).
  • Blind Spots: When Medicine Gets It Wrong, and What It Means for Our Health, by Marty Makary (2024).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Are You Really Allergic to Penicillin?" by Freakonomics Radio (2025).
  • "How to Fix the Hot Mess of U.S. Healthcare," by Freakonomics Radio (2021).
  • "Bad Medicine, Part 3: Death by Diagnosis," by Freakonomics Radio (2016).

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We all want to stay sharp, and forestall the cognitive effects of aging. But do brain supplements actually work? Are they safe? And why doesn’t the F.D.A. even know what’s in them? (Part one of “The Freakonomics Radio Guide to Getting Better.”)

• SOURCES:
  • Marty Makary, commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration.
  • Peter Attia, physician, author, and host of The Peter Attia Drive.
  • Pieter Cohen, associate professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School, physician at the Cambridge Health Alliance.

• RESOURCES:
  • "Protein Powders and Shakes Contain High Levels of Lead," by Paris Martineau (Consumer Reports, 2025).
  • "Accuracy of Labeling of Galantamine Generic Drugs and Dietary Supplements," by Pieter Cohen, Bram Jacobs, Koenraad Van Hoorde, and Céline Vanhee (JAMA, 2024).
  • Blind Spots: When Medicine Gets It Wrong, and What It Means for Our Health, by Marty Makary (2024).
  • Outlive: The Science and Art of Longevity, by Petter Attia (2023).
  • "Revealing the hidden dangers of dietary supplements," by Jennifer Couzin-Frankel (Science, 2015).

• EXTRAS:
  • "China Is Run by Engineers. America Is Run by Lawyers." by Freakonomics Radio (2025).
  • "How to Fix the Hot Mess of U.S. Healthcare," by Freakonomics Radio (2021).

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