For decades, the great fear was overpopulation. Now it’s the opposite. How did this happen — and what’s being done about it? (Part one of a three-part series, “Cradle to Grave.”)

• SOURCES:
  • Matthias Doepke, professor of economics at the London School of Economics.
  • Amy Froide, professor of history at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County.
  • Diana Laird, professor of obstetrics and gynecology at the University of California, San Francisco.
  • Catherine Pakaluk, professor of economics at The Catholic University of America.

• RESOURCES:
  • "Fertility Rate, Total for the United States," (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 2025).
  • "Global fertility in 204 countries and territories, 1950–2021, with forecasts to 2100: a comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021," (The Lancet, 2024).
  • "Suddenly There Aren’t Enough Babies. The Whole World Is Alarmed." by Greg Ip and Janet Adamy (The Wall Street Journal, 2024).
  • "Taxing bachelors and proposing marriage lotteries – how superpowers addressed declining birthrates in the past," by Amy Froide (University of Maryland, 2021).
  • "Is Fertility a Leading Economic Indicator?" by Kasey Buckles, Daniel Hungerman, and Steven Lugauer (National Bureau of Economic Research, 2018).
  • The King's Midwife: A History and Mystery of Madame du Coudray, by Nina Rattner Gelbart (1999).
  • The Population Bomb, by Paul Ehrlich (1970).
  • "An Economic Analysis of Fertility," by Gary Becker (National Bureau of Economic Research, 1960).

• EXTRAS:
  • "What Will Be the Consequences of the Latest Prenatal-Testing Technologies?" by Freakonomics Radio (2011).

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A famous essay argues that “not a single person on the face of this earth” knows how to make a pencil. How true is that? In this 2016 episode, we looked at what pencil-making  can teach us about global manufacturing — and the proper role of government in the economy.

• SOURCES:
  • Caroline Weaver, creator of the Locavore Guide.
  • Matt Ridley, science writer, British viscount and retired member of the House of Lords
  • Tim Harford, economist, author and columnist for the Financial Times
  • Jim Weissenborn, former CEO of General Pencil Company
  • Thomas Thwaites, freelance designer and associate lecturer at Central Saint Martins.

• RESOURCES:
  • "When ideas have sex," by Matt Ridley (TED, 2010).
  • "How I built a toaster — from scratch," by Thomas Thwaites (TED, 2010).
  • "Look on this toaster, ye mighty, and despair!" by Tim Harford (Financial Times, 2009).
  • "I, Pencil," by Leonard Read (Foundation for Economic Education, 1958).

• EXTRAS:
  • “Fault-Finder Is a Minimum-Wage Job,” by Freakonomics Radio (2025).

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Nicholas Cullinan, the new director of the British Museum, seems to think so. “I'm not afraid of the past,” he says — which means talking about looted objects, the basement storerooms, and the leaking roof. We take the guided tour.

• SOURCES:
  • Nicholas Cullinan, director of the British Museum.

• RESOURCES:
  • "Inside the British Museum: stolen treasures and a £1bn revamp," by Alice Thomson (The Times, 2025).
  • "British Museum gems for sale on eBay - how a theft was exposed," by Katie Razzall, Larissa Kennelly, and Darin Graham (BBC, 2024).
  • "British Museum chief Nicholas Cullinan: ‘I start with the idea that everything is possible,'" by Jan Dalley (Financial Times, 2024).
  • "Who Benefits When Western Museums Return Looted Art?" by David Frum (The Atlantic, 2022).
  • The Will of Sir Hans Sloane, by Sir Hans Sloane (1753).
  • The Portland Vase (The British Museum).

• EXTRAS:
  • "Stealing Art Is Easy. Giving It Back Is Hard." by Freakonomics Radio (2023).

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Austan Goolsbee, president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, is less reserved than the average banker. He explains why vibes are overrated, why the Fed’s independence is non-negotiable, and why tariffs could bring the economy back to the Covid era.

• SOURCES:
  • Austan Goolsbee, president and chief executive officer of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago.

• RESOURCES:
  • "Internet Rising, Prices Falling: Measuring Inflation in a World of E-Commerce," by Austan Goolsbee and Peter Klenow (American Economic Association Papers and Proceedings, 2018).
  • Microeconomics, by Austan Goolsbee, Steven Levitt, and Chad Syverson (2012).
  • "Does the Internet Make Markets More Competitive? Evidence from the Life Insurance Industry," by Jeffrey Brown and Austan Goolsbee (Journal of Political Economy, 2002).
  • Survey of Consumers (University of Michigan).
  • Adobe Digital Price Index.

• EXTRAS:
  • "Was Austan Goolsbee’s First Visit to the Oval Office Almost His Last?" by People I (Mostly) Admire (2022).
  • "Is $2 Trillion the Right Medicine for a Sick Economy?" by Freakonomics Radio (2020).
  • "Fed Up," by Freakonomics Radio (2019).
  • "Why the Trump Tax Cuts Are Terrible/Awesome (Part 2)" by Freakonomics Radio (2018).
  • "Ben Bernanke Gives Himself a Grade," by Freakonomics Radio (2015).
  • "Should the U.S. Merge With Mexico?" by Freakonomics Radio (2014).

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Just beneath the surface of the global economy, there is a hidden layer of dealmakers for whom war, chaos, and sanctions can be a great business opportunity. Javier Blas and Jack Farchy, the authors of The World for Sale, help us shine a light on the shadowy realm of commodity traders.

• SOURCES:
  • Javier Blas, opinion columnist at Bloomberg News.
  • Jack Farchy, energy and commodities senior reporter at Bloomberg News.

• RESOURCES:
  • The World For Sale: Money, Power, and the Traders Who Barter the Earth's Resources, by Javier Blas and Jack Farchy (2021)
  • The King of Oil: The Secret Lives of Marc Rich, by Daniel Ammann (2010).

• EXTRAS:
  • "How the Supermarket Helped America Win the Cold War (Update)" by Freakonomics Radio (2024).
  • "The First Great American Industry," by Freakonomics Radio (2023).

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Everyone makes mistakes. How do we learn from them? Lessons from the classroom, the Air Force, and the world’s deadliest infectious disease. (Part four of a four-part series.)

• SOURCES:
  • Will Coleman, founder and C.E.O. of Alto.
  • Amy Edmondson, professor of leadership management at Harvard Business School.
  • Babak Javid, physician-scientist and associate director of the University of California, San Francisco Center for Tuberculosis.
  • Gary Klein, cognitive psychologist and pioneer in the field of naturalistic decision making.
  • Theresa MacPhail, medical anthropologist and associate professor of science & technology studies at the Stevens Institute of Technology.
  • Roy Shalem, lecturer at Tel Aviv University.
  • Samuel West, curator and founder of The Museum of Failure.

• RESOURCES:
  • "A Golf Club Urinal, Colgate Lasagna and the Bitter Fight Over the Museum of Failure," by Zusha Elinson (Wall Street Journal, 2025).
  • Right Kind of Wrong: The Science of Failing Well, by Amy Edmondson (2023).
  • “You Think Failure Is Hard? So Is Learning From It,” by Lauren Eskreis-Winkler and Ayelet Fishbach (Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2022).
  • “The Market for R&D Failures,” by Manuel Trajtenberg and Roy Shalem (SSRN, 2010).
  • “Performing a Project Premortem,” by Gary Klein (Harvard Business Review, 2007).

• EXTRAS:
  • "The Deadliest Disease in Human History," by People I (Mostly) Admire (2025).
  • “How to Succeed at Failing,” series by Freakonomics Radio (2023).
  • “Moncef Slaoui: ‘It’s Unfortunate That It Takes a Crisis for This to Happen,'” by People I (Mostly) Admire (2020).

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Giving up can be painful. That's why we need to talk about it. Today: stories about glitchy apps, leaky paint cans, broken sculptures — and a quest for the perfect bowl of ramen. (Part three of a four-part series.)

• SOURCES:
  • John Boykin, website designer and failed paint can re-inventor.
  • Angela Duckworth, host of No Stupid Questions, co-founder of Character Lab, and professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania.
  • Amy Edmondson, professor of leadership management at Harvard Business School.
  • Helen Fisher, former senior research fellow at The Kinsey Institute and former chief science advisor to Match.com.
  • Eric von Hippel, professor of technological innovation at M.I.T.’s Sloan School of Management.
  • Jill Hoffman, founder and C.E.O. of Path 2 Flight.
  • Gary Klein, cognitive psychologist and pioneer in the field of naturalistic decision making.
  • Steve Levitt, host of People I (Mostly) Admire, co-author of the Freakonomics books, and professor of economics at the University of Chicago.
  • Joseph O’Connell, artist.
  • Mike Ridgeman, government affairs manager at the Wisconsin Bike Fed.
  • Melanie Stefan, professor of physiology at Medical School Berlin.
  • Travis Thul, vice president for Student Success and Engagement at Minnesota State University, Mankato.

• RESOURCES:
  • “Data Snapshot: Tenure and Contingency in US Higher Education,” by Glenn Colby (American Association of University Professors, 2023).
  • Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance, by Angela Duckworth (2016).
  • “Entrepreneurship and the U.S. Economy,” by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2016).
  • “A C.V. of Failures,” by Melanie Stefan (Nature, 2010).
  • Ramen Now! official website.

• EXTRAS: 
  • “How to Succeed at Failing,” series by Freakonomics Radio (2023).
  • “Annie Duke Thinks You Should Quit,” by People I (Mostly) Admire (2022).
  • “How Do You Know When It’s Time to Quit?” by No Stupid Questions (2020).
  • “Honey, I Grew the Economy,” by Freakonomics Radio (2019).
  • “The Upside of Quitting,” by Freakonomics Radio (2011).

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In medicine, failure can be catastrophic. It can also produce discoveries that save millions of lives. Tales from the front line, the lab, and the I.T. department. (Part two of a four-part series.)

• SOURCES:
  • Amy Edmondson, professor of leadership management at Harvard Business School.
  • Carole Hemmelgarn, co-founder of Patients for Patient Safety U.S. and director of the Clinical Quality, Safety & Leadership Master’s program at Georgetown University.
  • Gary Klein, cognitive psychologist and pioneer in the field of naturalistic decision making.
  • Robert Langer, institute professor and head of the Langer Lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  • John Van Reenen, professor at the London School of Economics.

• RESOURCES:
  • Right Kind of Wrong: The Science of Failing Well, by Amy Edmondson (2023).
  • “Reconsidering the Application of Systems Thinking in Healthcare: The RaDonda Vaught Case,” by Connor Lusk, Elise DeForest, Gabriel Segarra, David M. Neyens, James H. Abernathy III, and Ken Catchpole (British Journal of Anaesthesia, 2022).
  • "Estimates of preventable hospital deaths are too high, new study shows," by Bill Hathaway (Yale News, 2020).
  • “Dispelling the Myth That Organizations Learn From Failure,” by Jeffrey Ray (SSRN, 2016).
  • “A New, Evidence-Based Estimate of Patient Harms Associated With Hospital Care,” by John T. James (Journal of Patient Safety, 2013).
  • To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System, by the National Academy of Sciences (1999).
  • “Polymers for the Sustained Release of Proteins and Other Macromolecules,” by Robert Langer and Judah Folkman (Nature, 1976).
  • The Innovation and Diffusion Podcast, by John Van Reenen and Ruveyda Gozen.

• EXTRAS:
  • "The Curious, Brilliant, Vanishing Mr. Feynman," series by Freakonomics Radio (2024).
  • “Will a Covid-19 Vaccine Change the Future of Medical Research?” by Freakonomics Radio (2020).
  • “Bad Medicine, Part 3: Death by Diagnosis,” by Freakonomics Radio (2016).

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We tend to think of tragedies as a single terrible moment, rather than the result of multiple bad decisions. Can this pattern be reversed? We try — with stories about wildfires, school shootings, and love. (Part one of a four-part series.)

• SOURCES:
  • Amy Edmondson, professor of leadership management at Harvard Business School.
  • Helen Fisher, former senior research fellow at The Kinsey Institute and former chief science advisor to Match.com.
  • Ed Galea, founding director of the Fire Safety Engineering Group at the University of Greenwich.
  • Gary Klein, cognitive psychologist and pioneer in the field of naturalistic decision making.
  • David Riedman, founder of the K-12 School Shooting Database.
  • Aaron Stark, head cashier at Lowe's and keynote speaker.
  • John Van Reenen, professor at the London School of Economics.

• RESOURCES:
  • "Ethan Crumbley: Parents of Michigan school gunman sentenced to at least 10 years," by Brandon Drenon (New York Times, 2024).
  • Right Kind of Wrong: The Science of Failing Well, by Amy Edmondson (2023).
  • "How Fire Turned Lahaina Into a Death Trap," by Nicholas Bogel-Burroughs, Serge F. Kovaleski, Shawn Hubler, and Riley Mellen (The New York Times, 2023).
  • The Violence Project: How to Stop a Mass Shooting Epidemic, by Jillian Peterson and James Densley (2021).
  • "I Was Almost A School Shooter," by Aaron Stark (TEDxBoulder, 2018).

• EXTRAS: 
  • "Is Perfectionism Ruining Your Life?" by People I (Mostly) Admire (2023).
  • "Why Did You Marry That Person?" by Freakonomics Radio (2022).
  • "What Do We Really Learn From Failure?" by No Stupid Questions (2021).
  • "How to Fail Like a Pro," by Freakonomics Radio (2019).
  • "Failure Is Your Friend," by Freakonomics Radio (2014).

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It used to be that making documentary films meant taking a vow of poverty (and obscurity). The streaming revolution changed that. Award-winning filmmaker R.J. Cutler talks to Stephen Dubner about capturing Billie Eilish’s musical genius and Martha Stewart’s vulnerability — and why he really, really, really needs to make a film about the New York Mets.

• SOURCES:
  • R.J. Cutler, filmmaker.

• RESOURCES:
  • Fight for Glory, documentary (2025).
  • Martha, documentary (2024).
  • "Reality Check: The Boom—or Glut—in Streaming Documentaries Has Sparked a Reckoning Among Filmmakers and Their Subjects," by Reeves Wiedeman (Vulture, 2023).
  • "Inside the Documentary Cash Grab," by Mia Galuppo and Katie Kilkenny (The Hollywood Reporter, 2022).
  • Billie Eilish: The World’s a Little Blurry, documentary (2021).

• EXTRAS:
  • “Ari Emanuel Is Never Indifferent,” by Freakonomics Radio (2023).

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