An apologia is a defense especially of one's opinions, position, or actions.

// The opinion piece reads like an apologia for the industry's reckless behavior.

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"Yes, Barbie is a polarizing toy ... but [Greta] Gerwig leaped right to what else Barbie is: a potent, complicated, contradictory symbol that stands near the center of a decades-long and still-running argument about how to be a woman. ... The movie is a celebration of Barbie and a subterranean apologia for Barbie." — Willa Paskin, The New York Times, 11 July 2023

As you might expect, apologia is a close relative of apology. Both words come from Late Latin; apologia came to English as a direct borrowing while apology traveled through Middle French. The Latin apologia can be traced back to the Greek verb apologeîsthai, meaning "to speak in defense; defend oneself." In their earliest English uses, apologia and apology meant basically the same thing: a formal defense or justification of one's actions or opinions. Nowadays, however, the two are distinct. The modern apology generally involves an admission of wrongdoing and an expression of regret for past actions, while an apologia typically focuses on explaining, justifying, or making clear the grounds for some course of action, belief, or position.

Someone described as garrulous is very talkative. When garrulous is used to describe a piece of language (such as a speech), it means “containing many and often too many words; wordy.”

// One of the dinner party guests was a garrulous poet whose stories kept most of us in stitches.

// We tried our best to stay awake during the principal’s garrulous speech.

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“Verbosity [in Academy Awards acceptance speeches] became more of a problem with the advent of television coverage in the 1950s. As millions of viewers watched from around the world, actors and directors—also cinematographers, sound editors and costume designers—often lingered in the spotlight. The academy eventually instituted a 45-second time limit and directed the orchestra to play garrulous winners off stage.” — David Wharton, The Los Angeles Times, 8 Mar. 2024

We all know someone who blabs, gabs, or even confabs a little longer than necessary. You might refer to such a person as a chatty Cathy, but “garrulous Gary” would also make a perfectly apt nom de guerre. Garrulous, after all, is a 17th century Latin borrowing that has its origin in garrīre, meaning “to chatter, talk rapidly.” That Latin root is probably imitative in origin—that is, it was coined to imitate what it refers to. English has a number of words that are imitative in origin, among them several others that can describe the actions of that one friend who does all the talking, such as babble and chatter.

Progeny refers to the child or descendant of a particular parent or family. Progeny can also refer to the offspring of an animal or plant, or broadly to something that is the product of something else. The plural of progeny is progeny.

// Many Americans are the progeny of immigrants.

// The champion thoroughbred passed on his speed, endurance, and calm temperament to his progeny, many of whom became successful racehorses themselves.

// This landmark study is the progeny of many earlier efforts to explore the phenomenon.

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“‘I am (We are) our ancestors’ wildest dreams.’ The phrase originated from New Orleans visual artist, activist, and filmmaker Brandan Odums, and was popularized by influential Black figures like Ava Duvernay, who used the phrase in tribute to the ancestors of First Lady Michelle Obama. Melvinia Shields, who was born a slave in 1844, would be survived by five generations of progeny, ultimately leading to her great-great-great granddaughter—Michelle Obama ...” — Christopher J. Schell, “Hope for the Wild in Afrofuturism,” 2024

Progeny is the progeny of the Latin verb prōgignere, meaning “to beget.” That Latin word is itself an offspring of the prefix prō-, meaning “forth,” and gignere, which can mean “to beget” or “to bring forth.” Gignere has produced a large family of English descendants, including benign, engine, genius, germ, indigenous, and genuine. Gignere even paired up with prō- again to produce a close relative of progeny: the noun progenitor can mean “an ancestor in the direct line,” “a biologically ancestral form,” or “a precursor or originator.”

Vexillology is the study of flags.

// An expert in vexillology, Cynthia has an impressive collection of flags displayed in her home.

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"... flags should have simple elements, a limited number of colors, and no words. One of the tenets of vexillology is that the elements of the flag should be simple enough to be easily drawn by a child." — The Toledo (Ohio) Blade, 9 Jan. 2025

"The flag is the embodiment, not of sentiment, but of history." Woodrow Wilson was speaking of the U.S. flag when he made that statement in an address in June of 1915, but those who engage in vexillology—that is, vexillologists—would likely find the comment applicable to any national banner. Vexillologists undertake scholarly investigations of flags, producing papers with titles such as "A Review of the Changing Proportions of Rectangular Flags since Medieval Times, and Some Suggestions for the Future." In the late 1950s, they coined vexillology as a name for their field of research, basing it on vexillum, the Latin term for a square flag or banner of the ancient Roman cavalry. The adjectives vexillologic and vexillological and the noun vexillologist followed soon thereafter.

Rambunctious describes someone or something showing uncontrolled exuberance.

// On my first day of student teaching, I was tasked with managing a class of rambunctious youngsters.

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"To juvenile loggerhead sea turtles, a tasty squid might as well be a disco ball. When they sense food—or even think some might be nearby—these reptiles break into an excited dance. ... Researchers recently used this distinctive behavior to test whether loggerheads could identify the specific magnetic field signatures of places where they had eaten in the past. The results, published in Nature, reveal that these rambunctious reptiles dance when they encounter magnetic conditions they associate with food." — Jack Tamisiea, Scientific American, 12 Feb. 2025

Rambunctious first appeared in print in the early half of the 19th century, at a time when the fast-growing United States was forging its identity and indulging in a fashion for colorful new coinages suggestive of the young nation's optimism and exuberance. Rip-roaring, scalawag, scrumptious, hornswoggle, and skedaddle are other examples of the lively language of that era. Did Americans alter the largely British rumbustious because it sounded, well, British? That could be. Rumbustious, which first appeared in Britain in the late 1700s just after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, was probably based on robustious, a much older adjective meaning both "robust" and "boisterous."

To impute something, such as a motive, act, or emotion, to a person or thing is to assert that the person or thing is guilty of that motive, act, emotion, etc.

// It is shocking that they would impute such awful motives to me.

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“California is about to ease into the 2026 race for governor, and if you can pick any of the current candidates from a police lineup, either you work in Sacramento, have an unhealthy obsession with state politics, or both. That’s not to impute criminality on the part of any of those running to succeed the term-limited Gavin Newsom. ... Rather, those bidding to become California’s 41st governor aren’t exactly a collection of name-in-lights celebrities.” — Mark Z. Barabak, The Los Angeles Times, 9 Jan. 2025

Impute is a formal word typically used in contexts in which a motive, act, or emotion is credited or ascribed to someone, especially falsely or unfairly. For example, if you impute dishonesty to someone you’re asserting that they’re not telling the truth. And if you impute selfish motives to someone’s actions you’re asserting that they were motivated by selfishness. In the form imputed the word is often paired with income: imputed income is income calculated from the supposed value of intangible or non-cash sources, such as use of a company car, or an employee discount. What’s the connection between these meanings? Both involve considering someone or something in a particular way, tying each meaning to the word’s Latin ancestor: putare means “to consider.”

Debilitating is a formal word used to describe things that seriously impair strength or the ability to function.

// She suffers from debilitating migraines.

// The class helped him conquer his debilitating fear of public speaking.

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"Worry is such a debilitating thing that robs you of your energy ..." — Georgia Nicols, The Denver Post, 3 Apr. 2025

Debilitating describes things that cause serious impairment of strength or ability to function. The word appears in both medical and general contexts; someone can suffer from debilitating nausea or debilitating stage fright. An adjective that takes the form of a verb, debilitating dates to the mid-17th century, making it the youngest of a trio: its source, the verb debilitate ("to impair the strength of"), dates to the early 16th century, and the noun debility ("weakness, infirmity") has been in use since the 15th century. All come from the Latin word for "weak," debilis. Polyglots may recognize the influence of debilis in words from Spanish, Russian, Czech, Turkish, Danish, and many other languages as well.

Minutia refers to a small or minor detail. It is usually used in its plural form minutiae.

// Unaccustomed to legalese, I was bewildered by the contract's minutiae.

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“The novel is an intricate thatch of corkscrew twists, vivid characters, dead-on colloquial dialogue, and lawyerly minutiae that culminates in a courtroom showdown worthy of Dominick Dunne.” — David Friend, Vanity Fair, 1 Apr. 2025

We’ll try not to bore you with the minor details of minutia, though some things are worth noting about the word’s history and usage. It’ll only take a minute! Minutia was borrowed into English in the 18th century from the Latin plural noun minutiae, meaning “trifles” or “details,” which comes from the singular noun minutia, meaning “smallness.” In English, minutia is most often used in the plural as either minutiae (pronounced \muh-NOO-shee-ee\) or, on occasion, as simply minutia. The Latin minutia, incidentally, comes from minutus (also the ancestor of the familiar English word minute), an adjective meaning “small” that was created from the verb minuere, meaning “to lessen.”

An eloquent speaker or writer expresses ideas forcefully and fluently; an eloquent speech or piece of writing likewise expresses ideas in such a way. Eloquent can also describe something that is vividly or movingly expressive.

// She received high marks for her eloquent essay about gardening with her grandmother.

// Their success serves as an eloquent reminder of the value of hard work.

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"Her [author Michelle Cusolito's] concise yet eloquent text immerses young people in the watery setting, letting them feel the whales' clicks as they 'tingle' and 'vibrate' and emphasizing the strength of these animals' social bonds." — Kirkus Reviews, 1 May 2025

Words are powerful, especially when strung together in just the right sequence. A well-crafted sentence (or one who crafts it) might be described as eloquent, a word that comes from the Latin verb loquī, meaning "to talk or speak." (The adjective loquacious is another loquī descendent; it describes a person who is skilled at or has an affinity for talking.) Words are not alone in conveying emotion, and eloquent is also used to describe what we find vividly or movingly expressive, as when novelist and poet Thomas Hardy wrote of "a burst of applause, and a deep silence which was even more eloquent than the applause."

Cataract refers to a clouding of the lens of the eye, or of its surrounding transparent membrane, that obstructs the passage of light. Cataract is also used, often in literature, to refer to a waterfall, steep rapids in a river, or to a downpour or flood.

// Cataracts are common but can be corrected with surgery.

// The roaring cataract is one of the park’s most majestic sights.

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“I became a grandmother at the beginning of the decade and again at the end. I decided what kind of grandmother I wanted to be. I came to accept my identity as a writer. I retired from teaching after twenty years. I continue to work as a social work consultant. I had cataract surgery and can see better than I have in years.” — Lyn Slater, How to Be Old: Lessons in Living Boldly from the Accidental Icon, 2024

The ocular meaning of cataract that English users are most familiar with is also the oldest. It dates to the 14th century and comes from the Latin word cataracta, meaning “portcullis,” probably because a cataract in one’s eye obstructs vision much like a portcullis’s heavy iron grating obstructs passage into a fortress or castle. Cataracta has another meaning, however—“waterfall”—and that meaning gave English the water-related meanings that came in later centuries. The connection between the two Latin meanings can be seen in katarassein, the Greek source of cataracta. It means “to dash down,” describing the action of both the slamming portcullis and the cascading waterfall.