Reinforcement, which is always rewarding and will increase responding, is defined by the presentation or withdrawal of positive or negative reinforcers, which also involves two types of punishment.

A description of the visual system and its photoreceptors (rods and cones), as well as the phenomena of dark and light adaptation.

How we hear and the characteristics of sound.

The complexity of the sense of taste, including fungiform papilla, taste buds, taste receptors, and the role other senses play in how we taste food and beverages.

A description of the sense of smell and the olfactory epithelium.

Our largest sense organ, the skin; and, the position senses of proprioception and balance.

Hormonal imbalances in premenstrual syndrome as well as the normal menstrual cycle and its effects on cognitive processing.

The intricate interaction of hormones and an organism’s internal and external environment on physiology and behavior, as illustrated by the reproductive behavior of ring doves.

The devastating effects of steroid abuse on behavior and physiology.

Effects of gonadal hormones on behavior and sexual development.