The Future of Everything

As anyone with chronic disease knows, access to health care doesn’t always equate with equitable health care outcomes, says guest Alyce Adams, an expert in innovations in health policy. Too often, care delivery breaks down along racial and socioeconomic lines. Our focus should be on better outcomes for all people, she says. Adams now develops interventions to help communities and health systems improve care delivery — and health equity — as she tells host Russ Altman in this episode of Stanford Engineering’s The Future of Everything podcast.

Chapters:

(00:00:00) Introduction

Host Russ Altman introduces the episode and welcomes Professor Alyce Adams from Stanford University to discuss how new approaches in communities and health systems are improving care delivery for traditionally underserved populations.

(00:01:29) Unraveling Health Disparities

They discuss the disparities present in healthcare, particularly among underrepresented populations, and the importance of integrating patient voices in research.

(00:02:42) Addressing Socioeconomic Factors

The role of socioeconomic factors in health disparities and how they influence access to quality care. The discussion also examines efforts to eliminate barriers and provide equitable healthcare.

(00:04:15) Cultural Competence in Medicine

The conversation shifts to the significance of cultural competence in healthcare delivery. Prof. Adams explains the need for healthcare professionals to understand and respect diverse cultural backgrounds to ensure effective patient care.

(00:07:50) Bridging the Knowledge Gap

Insights into understanding patient knowledge and disease understanding, focusing on the example of tobacco use. The efforts to integrate patient and caregiver perspectives early in the research process are discussed.

(00:09:15) Empowering Patient Decision-Making 

The discussion explores strategies to empower patients in their healthcare decisions. Prof. Adams explains the importance of personalized care plans that align with patient values and priorities.

(00:11:30) Digital Health Literacy 

The increasing role of digital health tools and the importance of health literacy in utilizing these technologies effectively. The challenges of ensuring equitable access to digital health resources are also addressed.

(00:15:10) Qualitative Methods in Research

Insights into qualitative research methods and their significance in understanding patient experiences and priorities. The need for collaboration with community partners to shape research questions is emphasized.

(00:17:05) The Power of Patient Stories 

The conversation discusses the impact of patient narratives in healthcare research. Prof. Adams explains how patient stories provide valuable context and humanize data, leading to more comprehensive and patient-centric research outcomes.

(00:20:30) Building Patient-Centric Algorithms  

The development of AI algorithms to assess patient risk and facilitate decision-making for clinicians. Prof. Adams discusses the challenges of encoding priorities in these algorithms while considering potential biases.

(00:22:12) Algorithmic Transparency 

The discussion delves into the importance of algorithmic transparency and its role in building trust between patients and AI-driven healthcare systems. Prof. Adams explains the need for clear and interpretable AI models.

(00:27:45) Ethical Considerations in AI Implementation

The conversation explores ethical considerations in implementing AI technologies in healthcare. Prof. Adams discusses the potential risks and benefits and the importance of continuous evaluation and oversight.

(00:30:15) Engaging Policy Makers

The episode concludes with an optimistic view of policymakers' receptivity to research insights. Prof. Adams explains the importance of proactive engagement and communication in policy decisions.

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We’re on the cusp of another election season. As people across the country educate themselves on the issues and candidates on this year’s ballot, one question they will have to ask themselves is, how do I tell fact from fiction? In early 2022, my guest Johan Ugander shared his research to better understand the ways information spreads online. We’re re-running this episode today, and I hope you’ll take the time to hear a few of the strategies he recommends for preventing the spread of misinformation.

Chapter Time Stamps:

(00:00:45) Exploring the Spread of Information with Johan Ugander

Johan Ugander joins Russ Altman to discuss the intriguing dynamics behind the spread of information, drawing parallels to viral infections and shedding light on the battle between true and false news.

(00:01:14) Matching Methods and Treatment Control Analysis

Discover how matching methods and treatment control analysis play a crucial role in understanding the differences between true and false news, helping us unravel the complexities of information dissemination.

(00:02:22) The Tree Analogy: True News vs. False News

Exploring the tree analogy to understand how the spread of false news resembles that of true news, raisins intriguing questions about their results.

(00:04:14) The Battle on One Front: False News Infectiousness

Dive into the heart of the debate surrounding false news, as Johan uncovers a startling finding - false news not only spreads more but also exhibits higher infectiousness, challenging the notion of battling on multiple fronts.

(00:05:34) Epidemiological Metaphors and the Spread of Information

Johan elucidates the long-standing connection between epidemiological metaphors and information spread, revealing the fascinating interplay between social psychology and cognition in the dissemination process.

(00:08:34) Information Spreading vs Viral Infections

Distinctions between information spread and viral infections, as Johan highlights the critical role of decision-making and cognition in the former, in contrast to the particle-based interactions in the latter.

(00:10:22) The Common Basic Toolkit of Spread Processes

Discover the underlying commonalities between information spread and viral infections, as Johan emphasizes the presence of a shared basic toolkit while acknowledging the specific inquiry methods unique to each domain.

(00:12:40) Lessons for Stopping the Spread of False News

Uncover valuable insights on combatting the spread of false news, as Johan explores the power of drawing attention to accuracy, introducing frictions in information sharing, and leveraging product changes for differential control.

(00:14:25) Drawing Attention to Accuracy and Decision Consequences

Explore the psychology behind information spread and decision-making, as Johan highlights how drawing attention to content accuracy can differentially limit the propagation of false information, exemplified by Twitter's retweet validation feature.

(00:16:12) Adding Friction to Information Sharing

Learn about the significance of adding frictions to information sharing, exemplified by Twitter's prompt to prompt users to reconsider retweeting unread content, and its impact in curbing the spread of false information.

(00:18:30) The Value of Computational Auditing in Parole Systems

Shift gears as the discussion transitions to the world of parole systems, where Johan and Russ delve into the significance of computational auditing in shedding light on inconsistencies and arbitrariness within the California parole system.

(00:21:40) Analyzing Parole Grant Rates Across Commissioners

Explore the disparities in parole grant rates across different commissioners, as Johan explains the computational techniques employed to evaluate the system's fairness by shuffling commissioner assignments and examining deviations from expected outcomes.

(00:23:15) Unveiling Inconsistencies and Arbitrariness

Dive into the discoveries made through computational auditing, as Johan reveals the presence of inconsistencies and arbitrariness in the parole system, raising important questions about its fairness and potential avenues for improvement.

(00:25:16) Conclusion and Future Impact of Computational Audit

Reflect on the transformative potential of computational auditing in parole systems, as Johan and Russ discuss the broader implications of their work, including increased transparency, societal impact, and collaboration with criminal justice reform groups.

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Delve into the possibilities of silicon photonics as a game-changer in chip manufacturing. This is a re-run of a show that Russ did with David Miller back in 2021. David is an electrical engineer, and works in the field of photonics. As he shares in this conversation, there’s great potential for the field of photonics to help solve the problems posed by an increasing demand for computing power. Silicon-chip computers are starting to hit fundamental limits, and advances in the field of photonics – technology that uses light waves – may be just the help we need. David’s research offers a bright spot as we look to a future that continuously demands more computing power. Enjoy!

Chapter Notes

(00:00:00) Introduction

Join us as we delve into the world of optical computing, exploring its potential to revolutionize information processing and overcome the limitations of traditional electronic systems.

(00:00:27) Limitations of electronic systems

Gain insights into the current constraints faced by electronic systems, such as speed and energy efficiency, and discover why alternative approaches are necessary.

(00:01:42) Challenges of copper wire interconnects 

Understand the challenges associated with copper wire interconnects and how optical interconnects offer a promising solution with their potential for increased speed and bandwidth.

(00:04:12) Optical interconnects explained

Dive deeper into the concept of optical interconnects, exploring the principles behind transmitting data through light and the advantages they hold over traditional copper wires.

(00:06:08) Optics in long-distance communication

Learn about the significant role optics plays in long-distance communication, from transmitting data through undersea cables to interconnecting cities with optical fiber networks.

(00:07:41) Growing demand for high-speed data transmission

Discover the growing demand for high-speed data transmission in data centers and the need for scalable solutions that can handle the increasing volume of information.

(00:09:50) Silicon photonics

Explore the cutting-edge technology of silicon photonics, which leverages existing manufacturing processes to create photonic chips, opening new possibilities for optical computing.

(00:11:08) Transparency of materials, germanium's role & integration challenges

Delve into the optical properties of materials like silicon and glass, the potential of germanium as a complementary material to silicon, and the challenges of integrating new materials into existing silicon-based manufacturing processes.

(00:13:37) Overcoming device energy limitations

Learn about the progress made in reducing the energy consumption of devices that convert electrical signals into optical signals, a crucial step in achieving efficient optical computing.

(00:15:48) Introduction to "deep optics" and future prospects

Explore the concept of "deep optics," which goes beyond interconnects to encompass the potential use of optics for processing tasks within computing systems, and discover the immense potential of deep optics to transform computing systems and pave the way for a new era of information processing.

(00:19:04) Programmable and self-configuring optical systems

Gain insights into the development of programmable and self-configuring optical systems that can adapt their behavior, optimize light streams, and open up possibilities for advanced information processing.

(00:23:36) Future prospects

Explore the immense potential of deep optics to transform computing systems and pave the way for a new era of information processing.

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Chaitan Khosla is a chemical engineer who says that the world’s most advanced drug factories are not behemoths of the industrial age, but microscopic bacteria. These tiny creatures have evolved enzymatic assembly lines that ingest raw materials and churn out valuable other molecules, like life-saving antibiotics. By engineering new microbes, we hope to create next-generation drugs, Khosla tells host Russ Altman on this episode of Stanford Engineering’s The Future of Everything podcast.

Chapter Show Notes:

(00:00:43) Introduction to Assembly Lines and Antibiotics

Russ welcomes Professor Khosla and introduces the intriguing world of bacterial assembly lines and their crucial role in antibiotic synthesis. He emphasizes the significance of antibiotics and their intricate molecular structures.

(00:06:19) Enzymatic Assembly Lines: The Automotive Analogy

Drawing an analogy between assembly lines in nature and automotive assembly lines, discussion highlights the remarkable efficiency and meticulous organization of bacterial assembly lines.

(00:08:17) The Scale of Antibiotic Assembly Lines

Russ Altman and Chaitan Khosla delve into the scale of antibiotic assembly lines, using erythromycin as a prime example. They explore the multitude of enzymes involved in the assembly line process.

(00:10:34) Challenges in Antibiotic Synthesis

The conversation centers around the challenges faced by human chemists in synthesizing antibiotics compared to the remarkable efficiency and complexity of bacterial assembly lines.

(00:12:00) Uncovering Nature's Engineering Marvels

Russ Altman and Chaitan Khosla discuss the awe-inspiring engineering feats found in nature's assembly lines, exploring the intricacies of their construction and their functional significance.

(00:15:15) Expanding the Search for Assembly Lines

Russ Altman and Chaitan Khosla broaden the scope of assembly line research, discussing the potential for discovering novel assembly lines in previously unexplored organisms and environments.

(00:19:00) The Mystery of Orphan Assembly Lines

Russ Altman and Chaitan Khosla explore the enigmatic world of orphan assembly lines, discussing the fascination and curiosity surrounding these assembly lines whose functions remain unknown.

(00:22:00) Decoding the Language of Genes

Russ Altman and Chaitan Khosla delve into the process of deciphering the genetic code to unravel assembly line functions. They discuss the techniques and strategies employed in this intricate decoding process.

(00:24:00) Leveraging Artificial Intelligence in Assembly Line Analysis

The hosts discuss the application of artificial intelligence and machine learning in analyzing assembly line data, showcasing the potential of these technologies to accelerate the discovery of assembly line functions.

(00:26:00) A Window into Nature's Medicine Cabinet

Russ Altman and Chaitan Khosla explore the remarkable potential of assembly lines in antibiotic discovery, unveiling how studying these assembly lines can unlock nature's vast repertoire of medicinal compounds.

(00:28:32) Novel Insights from Recent Assembly Line Discoveries

Russ Altman and Chaitan Khosla highlight the groundbreaking insights gained from recent assembly line discoveries, discussing the exciting prospects and implications of these findings.

(00:30:30) Conclusion and Show Wrap-up

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Explore the frontiers of 3D printing in healthcare and its potential to revolutionize personalized medicine, reshape prosthetics, and reimagine drug delivery systems.

In this episode we're re-sharing a conversation Russ had in 2021 with Joseph DeSimone, a professor of chemical engineering at Stanford University. This one is about health, and Joe tells us how 3D printing is transforming healthcare. His group is using it to make vaccine delivery easier and more effective. They're also creating implantable chemotherapy that kills tumors, while having fewer side effects for the patients. 

We hope you enjoy this glimpse of how 3D printing technologies are being used in novel and unexpected ways.

Chapter show notes:

(00:00:00) Introduction

Host Russ Altman introduces the episode and welcomes Joseph DeSimone, a renowned 3D printing expert and bioengineer.

(00:01:14) Exploring the Potential of 3D Printing in Healthcare

Altman and DeSimone discuss the transformative possibilities of 3D printing in personalized medicine, prosthetics, and drug delivery.

(00:04:25) Advancements in Personalized Prosthetics

The advancements in 3D printing technology for personalized prosthetics are explored, highlighting the benefits of customized solutions for patients.

(00:07:36) Innovations in Implantable Devices

DeSimone discusses the groundbreaking use of 3D printing for creating implantable devices, such as bone replacements and joint implants, with improved functionality and longevity.

(00:09:19) Custom Prosthetics and Implants

The use of 3D printing for custom prosthetics and implants is highlighted, showcasing its potential for improving patient outcomes.

(00:11:05) Enhancing Drug Delivery through 3D Printing

DeSimone explains how 3D printing has revolutionized drug delivery systems, allowing for precise control and targeted release of medications to enhance therapeutic outcomes.

(00:13:10) Precision Drug Delivery for Cancer Treatment

DeSimone discusses the implantable devices used for targeted chemotherapy delivery, including a description of their appearance and components. 

(00:15:40) Applications of localized drug delivery in various cancers are explored.

(00:20:10) Advanced Materials for Bioprinting

The use of bioprinting and the development of advanced materials for creating functional tissues and organs are discussed, highlighting their potential impact on regenerative medicine.

(00:22:15) Harnessing 3D Printing for Regenerative Medicine

The potential of 3D printing in regenerative medicine, including tissue engineering and organ transplantation, is examined, highlighting its ability to create patient-specific solutions.

(00:23:35) Ensuring Data Security and Patient Privacy

The importance of data security and patient privacy in the context of 3D printing healthcare solutions is emphasized, exploring strategies to safeguard sensitive information.

(00:25:05) Trust and Ethics in 3D Printing Healthcare

The ethical considerations and challenges surrounding 3D printing in healthcare, including regulatory frameworks and patient privacy, are discussed.

(00:27:14) Diversity and Trust in Bioengineering and Healthcare

DeSimone discusses his involvement in issues of diversity and trust within bioengineering and healthcare. The connection between values, diversity, and fostering an innovative environment is examined.

(00:28:30) The Mathematical Impact of Diversity

Altman and DeSimone discuss the tangible benefits of diverse teams in driving progress and innovative solutions. The concept of combinatorial approaches and the need for diversity in disciplines and human experiences is highlighted.

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Neuroscientist Kalanit Grill-Spector studies the physiology of human vision and says that the ways computers and people see are in some ways similar, but in other ways quite different. In fact, she says, rapid advances in computational modeling, such as deep neural networks, applied to brain data and new imaging technologies, like quantitative MRI and diffusion MRI, are revolutionizing our understanding of how the human brain sees. We’re unraveling how the brain “computes” visual information, as Grill-Spector tells host Russ Altman on this episode of Stanford Engineering’s The Future of Everything podcast.

Chapter Time Stamps:

(00:01:30) Episode introduction: Exploring the fascinating field of cognitive neuroscience and brain development with Kalanit Grill-Spector.

(00:02:45) Dr Grill-Spector's background and research interests: The intersection of cognitive neuroscience, psychology, and computer science.

(00:04:00) The crucial role of experience in shaping brain development: Understanding how environmental factors influence neural specialization.

(00:09:55) The development of word processing regions in the brain: Investigating the emergence and evolution of brain regions associated with reading and word recognition.

(00:11:30) The evolution of word specialization and its implications: Exploring how the brain acquires the ability to read and process words.

(00:14:20) Shift in research focus to studying brain development in infants: Exploring the critical early phases of brain development and the impact of experience on neural circuits.

(00:16:40) Pokemon, Brain Representation, and Perception: The surprising findings on the continued development of word and face processing regions. Discovering the extended period of specialization and plasticity in these brain areas.

(00:19:10) Unexpected decline in specialization for body parts, particularly hands: Examining the trade-off between different cognitive abilities as brain regions specialize.

(00:22:00) Understanding the potential impact of experience on brain organization: Examining how environmental factors shape the neural pathways and cognitive capabilities.

(00:25:00) Investigating the influence of Pokemon on brain representation and perception: Analyzing the effects of exposure to specific visual stimuli on brain organization.

(00:27:15) The unique characteristics of Pokemon stimuli: Exploring how visual features, animacy, and stimulus size affect brain responses.

(00:29:00) Specificity of brain representation for Pokemons: Uncovering whether the brain develops distinct neural pathways for Pokemon stimuli.

(00:31:45) Comparing the effects of word learning: Understanding the potential trade-offs in brain specialization.

(00:32:45) Technical challenges in studying infant's brains: Discussing the need for new tools and analysis methods to study developing brains.

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Guest Debra Kaysen is a psychologist specializing in treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) who says that promising new cognitive and behavioral therapies are, quite literally, giving people “their lives back.” These therapies work without drugs to help patients manage their disease and its symptoms and, perhaps, even cure PTSD. We’re providing tools to change how they think, Kaysen tells host Russ Altman on this episode of Stanford Engineering’s The Future of Everything podcast.

For interested listeners, Kaysen offers a list of PTSD resources:

Resources

• Previous TFoE episode with Shaili Jain on treatments for PTSD
• https://istss.org/public-resources/trauma-basics
• https://istss.org/public-resources/find-a-clinician
• https://adaa.org/learn-from-us/from-the-experts/blog-posts/consumer/what-youre-feeling-ptsd-what-do-help

Free apps from the VA for PTSD and other related concerns

• https://www.ptsd.va.gov/appvid/mobile/
• https://www.abct.org/get-help/

For a Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) trained therapist

• https://cptforptsd.com/cpt-provider-roster/

Stanford’s PTSD clinic

• https://med.stanford.edu/psychiatry/patient_care/ptsd.html

International resource for a Prolonged Exposure (PE) trained therapist

• https://www.med.upenn.edu/ctsa/find_pe_therapist.html

Chapter Timestamps:

(00:00:00) Introduction to Trauma Therapy and Digital Mental Health

 Russ Altman introduces the topic of trauma therapy and discusses the advancements in digital mental health.

 (00:01:45) Support Apps for Trauma Survivors

Debra Kaysen explores the use of mobile applications as a means of support for sexual assault survivors in the immediate aftermath of trauma.

(00:03:15) Overcoming Barriers

Finding Therapists: Debra Kaysen highlights the challenges survivors face in finding therapists and the potential of apps to bridge that gap.

(00:05:10) Bridging the Gap: Challenges in Accessing Support

Debra Kaysen discusses the difficulties survivors face in accessing timely support and how apps can provide a solution.

(00:08:00) The Power of Telehealth for PTSD Treatment

Debra Kaysen emphasizes the effectiveness of telehealth in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its growing acceptance in the field.

(00:10:15) Equivalence of Telehealth and In-Person Therapy

Debra Kaysen shares her personal experience of providing therapy to her patients via telehealth and highlights its equivalence to in-person sessions.

(00:12:30) Exploring Asynchronous Therapy with Text Messages

Debra Kaysen delves into the use of text messages as a form of asynchronous therapy for PTSD treatment, offering flexibility and convenience.

(00:14:20) Enhancing Support: Immediate Response and Accessibility  

Debra Kaysen discusses the immediate response and accessibility benefits of asynchronous therapy with text messages.

(00:16:00) Building Trust and Establishing Rapport  

Debra Kaysen emphasizes the importance of building trust and establishing rapport in digital therapy settings.

(00:18:00) Honesty and Reduced Fear of Judgment 

Russ Altman discusses the potential for reduced fear of judgment in digital therapy, allowing individuals to be more open and honest in their communication.

 (00:20:00) Exploring Effective Therapeutic Techniques

Debra Kaysen explores various therapeutic techniques used in trauma therapy and their effectiveness in promoting healing.

(00:24:15) Long-Term Outcomes and Prevention

Debra Kaysen explores the long-term outcomes of trauma therapy, highlighting its potential to prevent symptom recurrence and equip individuals with lifelong resilience skills.

(00:26:00) Empowering Individuals: Coping Strategies

Debra Kaysen discusses empowering individuals with effective coping strategies to navigate future traumas.

(00:28:00) Sustaining Progress: Follow-up and Resilience

Debra Kaysen discusses the importance of follow-up care and how trauma therapy helps individuals develop resilience.

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Hi everyone, Russ here, we’re running a best-of episode this week to re-share a conversation I had in 2021 with Karen Liu, an associate professor of computer science here at Stanford Engineering. The conversation is relevant today because, as we all know, AI is having a moment, and robotics is an important part of that. Karen and her lab have a goal of enabling robots to contribute in caregiving roles - think of tasks like helping medical patients get dressed each day - and they’re using physics-based simulations to do that. I hope you’ll take some time to tune into this discussion, it’s a timely and relevant one given larger societal conversations about AI. Enjoy!

Chapter Time Stamps:
(00:00:00) Introduction 

Russ Altman interviews Karen Liu, a Stanford professor in computer science, to explore the advancements in exoskeleton technology and their impact on human augmentation.

(00:01:12) Defining Exoskeletons

Karen Liu provides an overview of exoskeletons as wearable devices that enhance human capabilities and become an integral part of the wearer's body.

(00:02:30) Wearable Devices and Human Augmentation 

The discussion delves into the concept of wearable devices augmenting human abilities, drawing parallels to popular culture references such as Iron Man.

(00:05:40) Incorporating Sensors and Cameras

Karen Liu explains how sensors and cameras are integrated into exoskeletons to understand the wearer's environment, enabling the exoskeleton to anticipate future actions.

(00:07:55) Parallels with Self-Driving Car Technologies

Exploring similarities with self-driving cars, the conversation highlights how exoskeletons can leverage environmental awareness to guide the wearer's movements.

(00:09:20) Modeling Human Behavior and Intentions

The discussion shifts to the modeling of human behavior and predicting user intentions to ensure exoskeleton assistance aligns with user expectations and maintains their independence.

(00:11:30) Ensuring User Safety and Comfort 

The focus turns to designing exoskeletons that prioritize user safety and comfort, considering factors such as ergonomics and personalized adjustments.

(00:13:45) Real-Time Adaptive Assistance

The conversation explores the potential for exoskeletons to dynamically adapt assistance levels in real time based on the wearer's needs and changing circumstances.

(00:15:20) Balancing Assistance and User Independence

The importance of finding the right balance between providing assistance and preserving user independence is discussed, ensuring that exoskeletons empower rather than hinder.

(00:17:05) Ethical Considerations and Accessibility

The discussion touches upon ethical considerations surrounding exoskeleton technology, including accessibility, affordability, and ensuring equal opportunities for all users.

(00:18:30) Optimizing Performance and Efficiency

The conversation dives into strategies for optimizing the performance and efficiency of exoskeletons, including advancements in energy management and battery technologies.

(00:19:45) User Feedback and Iterative Design

Karen Liu highlights the significance of user feedback and iterative design processes in refining exoskeleton technology to better meet user needs and preferences.

(00:20:30) Future Possibilities and Advancements 

Looking ahead, the conversation explores potential advancements in exoskeleton technology, including advancements in artificial intelligence and personalized exoskeleton designs.

(00:22:00) Collaborations and Interdisciplinary Research

The importance of interdisciplinary collaborations in advancing exoskeleton technology is discussed, emphasizing the need for expertise from various fields.

(00:23:10) Summary and Key Takeaways

Russ Altman summarizes the main points discussed throughout the episode, highlighting key takeaways for listeners to reflect upon.

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Guest Bill Mitch says it’s no secret the world is running short of fresh water. As a civil and environmental engineer, he sees wastewater as a potential solution, if only we can eliminate the impurities. Mitch designs systems to remove toxic chemicals from wastewater to enable its reuse as a drinking water supply. It’s not easy, but it costs half as much as desalinating seawater, Mitch tells host Russ Altman on this episode of Stanford Engineering’s The Future of Everything podcast.

Show Notes & Chapters: The future of Wastewater

(00:00:05) Introduction

Russ introduces the podcast and guest, William Mitch, who discusses the future of wastewater treatment.

(00:00:38) Nitrogen in Wastewater Treatment

Russ and William kick off the conversation with an insightful discussion on the issues surrounding the nitrogen cycle in wastewater treatment. They discuss the nitrogen cycle, the role of nitrogen in wastewater treatment, and the challenges of removing it from wastewater, including the current technologies being used.

(00:02:28) The Basics of Wastewater Treatment

Mitch explains the fundamental process of wastewater treatment, highlighting the initial step of removing solids and the biological process of removing organic matter.

(00:07:35) Understanding Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Mitch explains the concept of BOD, its importance in water treatment, and how technology has evolved to measure it.

(00:10:19) The Challenge of Nitrogen Removal

Discussion about the difficulties and processes involved in removing nitrogen from wastewater, focusing on the traditional and newer approaches.

(00:14:02) Energy Consumption in Wastewater Treatment

Mitch talks about the substantial energy demand involved in wastewater treatment, especially in the nitrogen removal process.

(00:17:32) Research on Nitrogen Removal

Mitch discusses his lab's research on a more energy-efficient process for nitrogen removal from wastewater, explaining the concept of anammox bacteria and their role in this process.

(00:20:49)  Phosphate Removal and Regulation

Mitch talks about the lack of regulatory pressure for phosphorus removal from water and its potential future implications.

(00:21:30) Public Acceptance of Wastewater Treatment Technologies

Russ probes into the public acceptance of wastewater technologies, specifically potable reuse of wastewater. William discusses the changes in public attitudes towards recycled water over the past decades, the importance of public relations campaigns and community education in shaping these attitudes, and the future of potable reuse facilities.

(00:24:39) The Quality of Potable Reuse Waters vs. Conventional Water Supplies

William discusses a recent study comparing the quality of water from potable reuse plants to conventional water supplies. He reveals that the treated waters were found to be of higher quality than surface waters and comparable in quality to groundwater supplies.

(00:27:00) Chlorinated Taste in Drinking Water

Russ asks William about the common chlorinated taste in drinking water. William explains the chemical reactions that lead to this taste and why it isn't necessarily a red flag for consumers.

(00:28:00) Future of Separate Infrastructures for Potable and Non-Potable Water

They wrap up the conversation discussing the possibility and implications of having separate infrastructures for potable water and water used for other purposes. William explains the logistical challenges and why many utilities are moving towards potable reuse.

(00:29:08) Conclusion

Russ concludes the episode, thanking William for his insights into the future of wastewater, and invites listeners to subscribe, rate, and review the podcast for future episodes.

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Guest Matteo Cargnello approaches the challenge of greenhouse gases from a different perspective. He doesn’t study how harmful chemicals got in the skies, or even the consequences. Instead, Cargnello is using his skills as a chemical engineer to turn them into other benign or useful chemicals. So far, he’s turned greenhouse gases into valuable industrial chemicals, polymers, renewable fuels, and even ethanol. Useful products from greenhouse gases, that's the dream, Cargnello tells host Russ Altman on this episode of Stanford Engineering’sThe Future of Everything.

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