On Valentine’s Day 1929, seven men were gunned down in a Chicago garage in an attack that stunned the nation. Photographs of the bloody scene appeared on front pages across the country, and the public reacted with horror. Even in Chicago—a city hardened by daily gang violence—the message was clear: this was different.

City officials were under intense pressure to respond, and suspicion quickly fell on the city’s most powerful gang leader, Al Capone. But proving who ordered the hit would be far more difficult than expected. And as investigators struggled to build their case, the fallout from the massacre would change Chicago—and Capone’s fate—forever.

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In 1920, a young Al Capone arrived in Chicago looking for a fresh start, and his timing couldn’t have been better. That same year, Prohibition outlawed the manufacture and sale of alcohol, turning America’s thirst into a criminal gold rush. Chicago quickly became the epicenter of bootlegging, and Capone was determined to seize the moment and make himself rich beyond imagination. But the city was already crowded with ambitious gangsters chasing the same prize. As rival bootleggers carved up territory, Chicago descended into a violent turf war that would reshape the criminal underworld.

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In the early 1950s, Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin were in a race to develop a vaccine against polio. While Salk’s killed-virus vaccine was the first to be distributed, Sabin continued working to perfect his own approach. In the end, Sabin’s oral polio vaccine—made from a weakened live virus—proved easier to administer and was ultimately distributed far more widely, though his name never achieved the same recognition. In this episode, Lindsay is joined by epidemiologist and oral historian Karen Torghele. Her book Albert Sabin: The Life of a Polio Vaccine Pioneer is due to be published by Yale University Press in June of 2026. 

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In April 1954, a group of first graders lined up in the gymnasium of an elementary school in McLean, Virginia for the start of the Salk polio vaccine trials. In an era before widespread federal government involvement in public health, the National Institute of Infantile Paralysis executed an unprecedented experiment involving nearly 2 million children and tens of thousands of doctors, nurses, and volunteers. It was the largest peacetime mobilization in American history.

While scientists evaluated the results, Americans waited anxiously to find out whether the vaccine was safe and effective, putting an end to 40 years of fear. But in the spring of 1955, a shocking revelation would bring the vaccination program to a sudden halt.

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By the late 1940s, the National Institute of Infantile Paralysis had raised millions of dollars to pay for patient care and laboratory research. But polio cases were reaching record levels, and scientists were no closer to a cure. Frustrated by the slow progress, Basil O’Connor resolved to recruit fresh talent to the cause. He soon found what he was looking for in a young and energetic researcher named Jonas Salk.

In 1951, Salk began testing a killed virus polio vaccine on monkeys in his Pittsburgh lab. His research soon put him at odds with the leading polio scientist Albert Sabin, who wanted his own live virus vaccine formula to prevail. As their rivalry escalated, Salk prepared to take the risky step of testing his vaccine on human subjects.

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After two turbulent decades in the ice trade, Frederic Tudor had finally made it. Expanding into the American South had paid off, with cities like New Orleans delivering steady profit. But Tudor’s insatiable appetite for risk kept pushing him to bet everything – again and again – even as losses mounted and disaster loomed.

As he entered his 50s, Tudor seemed ready to slow down. But when he was offered the opportunity to ship his ice halfway around the world to India, he couldn’t resist expanding his business once more. And just when it seemed he had mastered the trade he built from nothing, one final gamble threatened to undo everything he’d spent decades building.

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In the summer of 1921, 39-year-old Franklin Delano Roosevelt was on vacation with his family when he developed a fever, muscle aches, and chills. Pain spread to his legs, and soon, he was paralyzed from the waist down. Doctors diagnosed him with polio, which was fast becoming America’s most dreaded infectious disease.

Every summer, polio struck without warning, causing swimming pools and movie theaters to close and panicked parents to keep their children indoors. Polio killed thousands of Americans each year and paralyzed many more. But scientists had no idea how to stop it.

Roosevelt and his friend and colleague Basil O’Connor resolved to change that, launching the March of Dimes, a revolutionary fundraising campaign that galvanized millions of Americans to donate their time and money to the fight against polio.

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By 1816, Frederic Tudor had spent a decade shipping New England ice to Cuba—with little to show for it. Setbacks and vanished profits nearly ruined him, and a gamble on shipping tropical fruit had left him barely solvent. Then a chance conversation sparked a bold new idea: expand the ice trade into the American South. 

Tudor rushed to South Carolina, only to clash with state officials who refused to grant him a monopoly on trade – a tactic he’d come to rely on. Their refusal forced him to rethink everything, and revise his strategy. But just as he began to find success, a series of catastrophes threatened his health, and events were set in motion that would transform the Ice King’s future forever.

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In 1806, Frederic Tudor set out to build a fortune by shipping ice from his family’s pond near Boston to the tropical Caribbean—an audacious idea no one believed in. But turning frozen water into profit proved far harder than he imagined. By 1809, an embargo had halted his shipments, his debts had mounted, and Tudor himself landed in jail. Still, he refused to abandon the dream that everyone else mocked. Forced to improvise, innovate, and gamble, Tudor pushed ahead—determined to make the impossible pay. 

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In 1801, a young Boston merchant named Frederic Tudor made a life-changing visit to Cuba. There he had a wildly ambitious idea: he would ship New England ice to the sweltering Caribbean, where no one had ever seen frozen water – let alone tasted a cold drink or ice cream. 

Lacking experience and money, Tudor was mocked by seasoned ship captains who called his plan foolish. Still, by 1806 he’d scraped together enough funds to send a shipment of ice to the island of Martinique. But once it arrived, Tudor would have to convince island residents to buy a product they’d never imagined – before any hope of profit melted away.

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