Lethal Dose

This episode continues our foray into poisons used by agents of the Russian government which we began examining in Episode 20: Ricin. We cover the creation of The Chamber, truth serums, and the polonium used to assassinate Alexander Litvinenko in 2006.

1. Volodarsky, B., The KGB's Poison Factory. Minneapolis: Frontline Books, 2009.

2. Review of Acute Human-Toxicity Estimates for Selected Chemical-Warfare Agents. National Academy Press: Washington, D.C., 1997.  (accessed 18 May 2021).

3. Fitzgerald, G. J., Chemical warfare and medical response during World War I. Am J Public Health 2008, 98 (4), 611-625.

4. Chen, Y.;  Jia, Y.;  Song, W.; Zhang, L., Therapeutic potential of nitrogen mustard based hybrid molecules. Front Pharmacol 2018, 9 (1453), 12.

5. Hazell, S., Mustard gas - from the Great War to frontline chemotherapy. In Science Blog, Cancer Research UK: scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org, 2014.

6. Olsen, A. J., German is Felled in Soviet by Gas. The New York Times 1964, p 2.

7. Schwarez, J. What is "Truth Serum?" Office for Science and Society [Online], 2017. https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/drugs-history-you-asked/what-truth-serum (accessed 16 Feb 2022).

8. Brown, D. Some Believe 'Truth Serums' Will Come Back Washington Post [Online], 2006. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/19/AR2006111900891.html (accessed 16 Feb 2022).

9. Borrell, B. What is truth serum? Scientific American [Online], 2008. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-truth-serum/#:~:text=What%20does%20the%20term%20%22truth,people%20about%20their%20past%20experiences. (accessed 16 Feb 2022).

10. Keller, L. M., Is Truth Serum Torture? American University International Law Review 2005, 20 (3).

11. Truth Drug. https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Truth_drug.html.

12. Harding, L., A Very Expensive Poison. Vintage Books: New York, 2016.

13. What is polonium - and why is it so dangerous? https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/science/chemistry/what-polonium-and-why-it-so-dangerous (accessed 16 Feb 2022).

14. Hammond, C. R. Polonium. http://www.3rd1000.com/elements/Polonium.htm#Overview (accessed 16 Feb 2022).

15. Biddle, W., Polonium-210, -214, -218. In A Field Guide to Radiation, Penguin Books: New York, 2012.

16. Contamination vs. exposure. https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/emergencies/contamination.htm#:~:text=Radioactive%20contamination%20occurs%20when%20radioactive,or%20animals%20to%20become%20contaminated.

17. The Litvinenko Inquiry: Report into the death of Alexander Litvinenko; Secretary of State for the Home Department: webarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk, 2016.

18. McKenna, T.; Shprintsen, A., The Polonium Plot. CBC: Canada, 2016.

By popular listener demand, today's episode covers the 1978 assassination of Georgi Markov using one of the world's oldest poisons. 

1. KGB. https://www.history.com/topics/russia/kgb (accessed 06 Jan 2022).

2. Pringle, R. W. Federal Security Service. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Federal-Security-Service (accessed 06 Jan 2022).

3. Murrell, K. B.;  Ioffe, G.; French, R. A. The Kremlin of Moscow. https://www.britannica.com/place/Moscow/The-Kremlin (accessed 06 Jan 2022).

4. Political Assassinations. In Forensic History: Crimes, Frauds, and Scandals, The Great Courses: 2014; p 32 minutes.

5. Volodarsky, B., The KGB's Poison Factory. Minneapolis: Frontline Books, 2009.

6. Knight, B., Ricin - a potent homicidal poison. The British Medical Journal 1979, 1 (6159), 350-351.

7. Kenarov, D.; Baumgartner, P. Letter From Bulgarian Intelligence Refutes Talk That 'Umbrella Murder' Victim Georgi Markov Was a Spy Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty [Online], 2019. https://www.rferl.org/a/no-agent-bulgarian-spies-letter-refutes-talk-of-umbrella-murder-victim-markov-as-spy/29772449.html (accessed 13 Jan 2022).

8. . Georgi Markov: Bulgaria closes umbrella killing probe BBC [Online], 2013. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-24068781 (accessed 13 Jan 2022).

9. Brown, M., Castor Oil Plant. In Death in the Garden, White Owl: Philadelphia, 2018.

10. Alsop, J. A.; Karlik, J. F. Poisonous Plants; University of California: anrcatalog.ucanr.edu, 2016; p 26.

11. Polito, L.;  Bortolotti, M.;  Battelli, M. G.;  Calafato, G.; Bolognesi, A., Ricin: An ancient story for a timeless plant toxin. Toxins 2019, 11 (324), 16.

12. Borowski, S. From beans to weapon: The discovery of ricin. https://www.aaas.org/beans-weapon-discovery-ricin (accessed 10 Jan 2022).

13. Hayoun, M. A.;  Kong, E. L.;  Smith, M. E.; King, K. C., Ricin Toxicity. In StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, 2021.

14. Hayden, E. C., Ricin: What is It? Nature 2013.

15. Questions and Answers About Ricin. https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/ricin/qa.asp (accessed 12).

16. Stewart, A., Castor Bean. In Wicked Plants, Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill: Chapel Hill, 2009.

In 1915, an orderly at the German Odd Fellows home killed eight patients with chloroform. A hundred years later, chloroform was still being used for murderous purposes in the murder of Sameena Imam.

1. Blum, D., The Poisoner's Handbook. Penguin Books: New York, 2010.

2. Lane, B.; Gregg, W., Mors, Frederick. In The Encyclopedia of Serial Killers, Berkley Books: New York, 1995.

3. Buxton, D. W., John Snow and the advent of chloroform. British J of Anaesthesia 1924, 1 (3), 101-107.

4. Snow, J., On the cause and prevention of death from chloroform. BMJ 1852, 4 (40), 320-329.

5. Killed 8 in Home, He Tells Perkins. The New York Times 1915.

6. Fugitive Ends His Own Life, Police Theory. The Yonkers Herald 1923.

7. Suspects Torrington Man of Murdering 8. Hartford Courant 1919.

8. Chloroform; Lab Chem: labchem.com, 2017.

9. Baselt, R. C., Chloroform. In The Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, Biomedical Publications: Davis, California, 1982.

10. Foxall, K. Chloroform Toxicological Overview; Health Protection Agency: assets.publishing.service.co.uk, 2007.

11. Fisher, J. Is chloroform still used to knock people out? https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/is-chloroform-still-used-to-knock-people-out/.

12. Oduntan, S. A., Chloroform anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1968, 23 (4), 552-557.

13. Payne, J. P., Chloroform in clinical anaesthesia. Br. J. Anaesth. 1981, 53, 11S-15S.

14. . Sameena Imam murder: Chloroform killing brothers jailed BBC [Online], 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-34597321 (accessed 03 Jan 2022).

15. Adams, S. Sameena Imam murder: Listen to chilling moment killer describes how he smothered Costco manager to death on sofa Mirror [Online], 2015. https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/sameena-imam-murder-listen-chilling-6669771 (accessed 03 Jan 2022).

16. Morris, S. Sameena Imam trial: brothers found guilty of murdering cash-and-carry manager The Guardian [Online], 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/oct/20/sameena-imam-trial-brothers-found-guilty-murder-cash-and-carry-manager (accessed 03 Jan 2022).

17. Segalov, M. The Secret Relationship That Ended in a Christmas Murder Vice [Online], 2018. https://www.vice.com/en/article/wxdq4m/cops-admit-sharing-images-of-murdered-sisters-on-whatsapp (accessed 03 Jan 2022).

Happy new year! In this episode, Kayla and Venus talk about one of the most popular poisons known to humans and how it was used in the serial slayings of indigenous Canadian women in the 1980s. Content warning for sexual assault, race-based hate crimes, crimes against sex workers, and brief mention of assault on a child.

1. Slingerland, E., Drunk: How We Sipped, Danced, and Stumbled Our Way to Civilization Little, Brown Spark: New York, 2021.

2. Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources from the Eighth Century Onwards. http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html.

3. Kuhn, C.;  Swartzwelder, S.; Wilson, W., Alcohol. In Buzzed: The Straight Facts About the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstacy, W. W. Horton & Company: New York, 2019.

4. Lock, S. Mass Alcohol Poisoning from Woman's Homemade Drinks Kills 16 People Newsweek [Online], 2021. https://www.newsweek.com/mass-alcohol-poisoning-womans-homemade-drinks-kills-16-people-1620132 (accessed 21 Dec 2021).

5. . Two Arrested After 18 Die from Alcohol Poisoning in Russia Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty [Online], 2021. https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-bootleg-alcohol-deaths/31513327.html (accessed 21 Dec 2021).

6. Deaths from Excessive Alcohol Use in the United States. https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/features/excessive-alcohol-deaths.html.

7. Mandel, M. Watching the drunk girls die. http://www.ottawamenscentre.com/news/20040813_boozing_barber.htm.

8. Larue, F. Gilbert Paul Jordan: The Boozing Barber First Nations Drum [Online], 2009. http://www.firstnationsdrum.com/2009/04/gilbert-paul-jordan-the-boozing-barber/ (accessed 22 Dec 2021).

9. Alcohol Poisoning. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alcohol-poisoning/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20354392.

10. Perry, P. J.;  Doroudgar, S.; Van Dyke, P., Ethanol Forensic Toxicology. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 2017, 45, 429-438.

11. McCarthy, K., Gilbert Paul Jordan. In Invisible Victims: Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women RJ Parker Publishing, Inc.: Canada, 2016.

12. Lowman, J.; Fraser, L. Violence Against Persons Who Prostitute: The Experience in British Columbia; Research, Statistics and Evaluation Directorate: publicsafety.gc.ca, 1995.

13. Sterritt, A. Family still seeks answers 35 years after Mary Johns found dead in serial killer's barber shop CBC [Online], 2017. https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/mary-johns-mmiwg-boozing-barber-vancouver-1.4139290 (accessed 22 Dec 2021).

14. . 'Predator' back in jail CBC [Online], 2000. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/predator-back-in-jail-1.236346 (accessed 22 Dec 2021).

15. . "Boozing Barber" on the lam in southern Canada CBC [Online], 2004. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/boozing-barber-on-the-lam-in-southern-canada-1.509202 (accessed 22 Dec 2021).

16. . 'Boozing Barber' caught in Winnipeg CBC [Online], 2004. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/boozing-barber-caught-in-winnipeg-1.510141 (accessed 22 Dec 2021).

17. Lindberg, T.;  Campeau, P.; Campbell, M., Indigenous Women and Sexual Assault in Canada. In Sexual Assault in Canada, Sheehy, E. A., Ed. University of Ottawa Press: Ottawa, 2012.

18. Bartley, F. Murdered & Missing Indigenous Women. https://www.nativewomenswilderness.org/mmiw.

19. Hotton Mahony, T.;  Jacob, J.; Hobson, H. Women in Canada: A Gender-based Statistical Report; Statistics Canada: statcan.gc.ca, 2017.

20. LaHood, A. J.; Kok, S. J., Ethanol Toxicity. StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557381/ (accessed 22 Dec 2021).

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This episode was our very first microdose made available to our patrons. Florence Maybrick was accused of fatally poisoning her husband, James Maybrick, with arsenic in 1899. She was tried and found guilty, but was justice served?

In this season 2 finale episode, Kayla relates the drama of the mysterious death of Jane Stanford by strychnine to Venus. Did she die from natural causes, or was our Mr. Body killed in the hotel room with the bottle of poison?

1. Christie, A., The Mysterious Affair at Styles. Project Gutenberg: gutenberg.org, 1997. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/863/863-h/863-h.htm#chap03(accessed 16 Nov 2021).

2. Cutler, R. W. P., The Mysterious Death of Jane Stanford. Stanford University Press: Stanford, 2003.

3. Kang, L.; Pedersen, N., Quackery: A Brief History of the Worst Ways to Cure Everything. Workman Publishing Co., Inc.: New York, 2017.

4. Strychnine. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/57249.html.

5. Dillon, S. R. Death and Kinetics. https://www.chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1020c/Lecture%208/02.php.

6. Harkup, K., A is for Arsenic: The Poisons of Agatha Christie. New York: Bloombsbury Sigma, 2015.

7. Hoffman, R. S.; Howland, M. A.; Lewin, N. A.; Nelson, L. S.; Goldfrank, L. R., Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. 10th ed.; McGraw-Hill Education: New York, 2015.

8. Baselt, R. C., Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man. 2nd ed.; Biomedical Publications: Davis, CA, 1982.

Wash your damn hands! Kayla and Venus talk with Bryce Cherven of Pastry Unicorn to discuss a slew of salmonella typhi poisonings at the hands of Mary Mallon in the late 1910's.

1. Typhoid Fever. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/diseases/typhoid.

2. Typhoid fever. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/typhoid-fever/symptoms-causes/syc-20378661.

3. Goldman, B. Scientists get a handle on what made Typhoid Mary's infectious microbes tick Stanford Medicine Magazine [Online], 2013. https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2013/08/scientists-get-a-handle-on-what-made-typhoid-marys-infectious-microbes-tick.html.

4. Ashurst, J. V.; Truong, J.; Woodbury, B., Salmonella Typhi. StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519002/.

5. What is Salmonella? https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-salmonella.

Happy Halloween! This episode, we discuss one of the few instances of poisoned candy at Halloween with the 1858 Bradford Sweets Poisoning.

1. Arsenic Trioxide; ThermoFisher Scientific: fishersci.pt, 2020.

2. Ratnaike, R. N., Acute and chronic arsenic toxicity. Postgrad Med J 2003, 79, 391-396.

3. Parascandola, J., King of Poisons. Potomac Books: Washington, D.C., 2012.

4. Kang, L.; Pedersen, N., Quackery: A Brief History of the Worst Ways to Cure Everything. Workman Publishing Co., Inc.: New York, 2017.

5. Hart, F. L., A history of the adulteration of food before 1906. Food Drug Cosmet Law J 1952, 7 (1), 5-22.

6. London, J., Tragedy, Transformation, and Triumph: Comparing the Factors and Forces that Led to the Adoption of the 1860 Adulteration Act in England and the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act in the United States. Food Drug Law J 2014, 69 (2), 315-342.

7. The Poisonings by Arsenic at Bradford. The Bedfordshire Mercury Monday, November 15, 1858, 1858.

8. Clayton, P.; Rowbotham, J., An unsuitable and degraded diet? Part two: realities of the mid-Victorian diet. J R Soc Med 2008, 101 (7), 350-357.

9. Wholesale Poisoning by Arsenic at Bradford. The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions 1858, XVIII, 340-342.

10. Emsley, J., The Elements of Murder. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2005.

11. John Henry Bell, M.D., M.R.C.S., Consulting Surgeon, Bradford Eye and Ear Hospital; Consulting Medical Officer, Bradford Royal Infirmary. BMJ 1906, 2 (2386), 735-736.

12. Dyer, P., The 1900 arsenic poisoning epidemic. Brewery History 2009, 130, 65-85.

13. Blum, D., The Poison Squad. Penguin Press: New York, 2018.

Don't believe everything you see in the movies. Spiking someone's drink with eye drops containing tetrahydrozoline won't get you more face time with Rachel McAdams, but it might kill Bradley Cooper. On this episode, Kayla and Venus discuss how Lana Clayton murdered her husband Steve Clayton in 2018.

1. Hagwood, R. S. Philanthropist Steven D. Clayton laid to rest, a year after his death South Florida Sun Sentinel [Online], 2019. https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/obituaries/fl-ne-steven-clayton-obit-eye-drop-murder-20190721-3ozh3dkgpjbvdjvivdlpcde5pq-story.html (accessed 23 Sep 2021).

2. Van Sant, P., S.C. nurse who fatally poisoned huband with eye drops: "I just wanted him to suffer". In The Eye Drop Homicide, CBS Interactive, Inc.: CBS News, 2021.

3. . Lake Wylie woman to spend 25 years in prison for fatally poisoning husband with eye drops WSOC-TV [Online], 2020. https://www.wsoctv.com/news/local/lake-wylie-woman-accused-killing-husband-with-eye-drops-appear-court/IBBQWHZ63BARZDAD5Z7GWK5ZIY/ (accessed 22 Sep 2021).

4. . Women gets 25 years in prison for poisoning husband with eye drops: "I never thought it would kill him" CBS News [Online], 2020. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lana-clayton-sentenced-25-years-prison-poisoning-husband-steven-clayton-eye-drops-york-south-carolina/ (accessed 22 Sep 2021).

5. Minimal Risk. https://www.fda.gov/patients/informed-consent-clinical-trials/minimal-risk (accessed 23 Sep 2021).

6. Drug Scheduling. https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling (accessed 23 Sep 2021).

7. Hoffman, R. S.;  Howland, M. A.;  Lewin, N. A.;  Nelson, L. S.; Goldfrank, L. R., Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. 10th ed.; McGraw-Hill Education: New York, 2015.

8. McLaurin, E.;  Cavet, M. E.;  Gomes, P. J.; Ciolino, J. B., Brimonidine ophthalmic solution 0.025% for reduction of ocular redness: a randomized clinical trial. Optom Vis Sci 2018, 95 (3), 264-271.

9. Churchill, J.; Soglin, A. Red-Eye Drops: Poisonous to Drink, Safe if Used Correctly. https://www.aao.org/eye-health/treatments/red-eye-drops-safe-if-used-correctly (accessed 22 Sep 2021).

10. Tetrahydrozoline. https://web.archive.org/web/20170103190214/https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+7471 (accessed 22 Sep 2021).

11. Polyethylene glycol 8000 (PEG); ThermoFisher Scientific: fishersci.com, 25 Apr 2019, 2019.

12. Polyvinyl alcohol, 75-100% hydrolyzed, M.W. 2000-95000; ThermoFisher Scientific: fishersci.com, 11 Oct 2007, 2007.

13. Polyvinylpyrrolidone; ThermoFisher Scientific: fishersci.com, 18 Jan 2018, 2018; p 6.

14. Carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium salt; ThermoFisher Scientific: fishersci.com, 19 Jan 2018, 2018; p 6.

15. Dextran sulfate, sodium salt; ThermoFisher Scientific: fishersci.com, 17 Oct 2019, 2019; p 6.

16. Becker, L. C.;  Bergfeld, W. F.;  Belsito, D. V.;  Hill, R. A.;  Klaassen, C. D.;  Liebler, D. C.;  Marks, J. G.;  Shank, R. C.;  Slaga, T. J.;  Snyder, P. W.;  Gill, L. J.; Heldreth, B., Safety Assessment of Glycerin as Used in Cosmetics. Int J Tox 2019, 38, 6S-22S.

17. Hypromellose 2910, 4000 MPA-S, USP; Spectrum Chemical: spectrumchemical.com, 11 Sep 2018, 2018; p 11.

18. Tetrahydrozoline (hydrochloride); Cayman Chemical: caymanchem.com, 09 Oct 2017, 2017; p 5.

19. Roppolo, M. Former paramedic, accused of killing wife with eyedrops, facing arson charges CBS News [Online], 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/joshua-hunsucker-helicopter-arson-charges/ (accessed 23 Sep 2021).

The times are changing, but not fast enough. Venus and Kayla discuss the use of ketamine by emergency medical personnel under the direction of police forces in the United States and how the drug contributed to the death of James Britt, Jr. in 2019. 

1. James Claude Britt Jr. https://obits.postandcourier.com/us/obituaries/charleston/name/james-britt-obituary?id=2084215(accessed 24 Aug 2021).

2. Wiggins, L. In-Custody Death Britt, Jr., James C.; South Carolina Law Enforcement Division: Columbia, South Carolina, 2020; p 29.

3. Bailey, S. Bailey: Handcuffed and shackled, he died after getting a shot of ketamine The Post and Courier [Online], 2020. https://www.postandcourier.com/opinion/commentary/bailey-handcuffed-and-shackled-he-died-after-getting-a-shot/article_bf30b3a8-5a2c-11ea-8016-e30b4054f145.html?utm_source=The%20Marshall%20Project%20Newsletter&utm_campaign=fdd0cfc34c-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2020_03_04_12_49&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_5e02cdad9d-fdd0cfc34c-174354037(accessed 24 Aug 2021).

4. Orhurhu, V. J.; Vashisht, R.; Claus, L. E.; Cohen, S. P., Ketamine Toxicity. In StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, 2021.

5. Kofsky, J.; Weismann, L. Bill calls for banning incapacitations of S.C. criminal suspects with ketamine WMBF News [Online], 2021. https://www.wmbfnews.com/2021/01/14/bill-calls-banning-incapacitations-sc-criminal-suspects-with-ketamine/(accessed 25 Aug 2021).

6. . ESO Publishes Peer-Reviewed Paper on Prehospital Ketamine Use at a National Level Business Wire [Online], 2021. https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20210611005060/en/ESO-Publishes-Peer-Reviewed-Paper-On-Prehospital-Ketamine-Use-At-A-National-Level (accessed 25 Aug 2021).

7. Gliha, L. J. Problem Solvers Investigation: Colorado paramedics injecting sedative ketamine into agitated patients KDVR [Online], 2019. https://kdvr.com/news/local/problem-solvers-investigation-colorado-paramedics-injecting-sedative-ketamine-into-agitated-patients/ (accessed 25 Aug 2021).

8. Gliha, L. J. State launches investigation after Problem Solvers obtain footage of South Metro ketamine incident KDVR [Online], 2020. https://kdvr.com/news/problem-solvers/state-launches-investigation-after-problem-solvers-obtain-new-footage-of-south-metro-ketamine-incident/ (accessed 25 Aug 2021).

9. Gliha, L. J. State chief medical officer says 'more to come' on Colorado ketamine program KDVR [Online], 2020. https://kdvr.com/news/state-chief-medical-officer-says-more-to-come-on-colorado-ketamine-program/ (accessed 25 Aug 2021).

10. Hoffman, R. S.;  Howland, M. A.;  Lewin, N. A.;  Nelson, L. S.; Goldfrank, L. R., Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. 10th ed.; McGraw-Hill Education: New York, 2015.

11. Stone, B.; Bledsoe, B.; Davis, K.; Hax, S. D.; Hodnick, R. Ketamine's Versatility Makes it a Powerful Tool for EMS JEMS [Online], 2017. https://www.jems.com/patient-care/ketamine-s-versatility-makes-it-a-powerful-tool-for-ems/(accessed 25 Aug 2021).

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