Medieval European architecture is defined by two major successive styles: Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque architecture (c. 1000–1200 CE) is characterized by massive, thick walls, rounded arches, and a heavy, fortress-like appearance. In the 12th century, Gothic architecture introduced innovations like the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the flying buttress. These engineering advancements functioned as an external skeleton, distributing the weight of the roof. This allowed for significantly taller structures with thinner walls that could be opened up for enormous stained-glass windows.

Other key facts from the period include the design of medieval castles, which were military fortresses built for defense over comfort. Gargoyles on cathedrals were not merely decorative but were functional water spouts that protected the building's masonry from water erosion. The vibrant stained-glass windows served a practical purpose as well, acting as giant picture books to teach biblical stories to a largely illiterate population. The Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris is a primary example of Gothic architecture; its construction began in 1163, took nearly 200 years to complete, and it was one of the first buildings to utilize flying buttresses.

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