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Madeira is one of the most resilient wines ever produced. Fortified during fermentation, intentionally heated, and slowly oxidized, it defies many of the rules that govern wine aging and thrives because of it.

In this episode of The Wine Lab, we explore how Madeira’s unique production methods developed through long ocean voyages, how fortification with highly rectified grape spirit shapes sweetness and stability, and why heating methods like estufagem and canteiro create such extraordinary longevity. Along the way, we trace Madeira’s chemical evolution, its role in history and literature, and the compounds that give it aromas of nuts, citrus peel, and caramel.

This is a story of wine shaped by travel, time, and deliberate stress, and a reminder that endurance can be its own form of elegance.

Before you go, pour a glass of Madeira, taste it slowly, and share it with someone curious. Some wines reward patience more than others.

Until next time, stay curious, cheers!

Glossary

Aguardente vínica
A highly rectified, neutral grape spirit used to fortify Madeira during fermentation, typically around 95 to 96 percent alcohol.

Boal (Bual)
A Madeira grape variety used to produce medium sweet wines with caramelized fruit and nutty aromas.

Canteiro
A traditional Madeira aging method where barrels mature slowly in warm lofts, heated only by ambient conditions, often for decades.

Estufagem
A controlled heating process for Madeira using tanks or heated rooms, typically applied to younger wines.

Fortification
The addition of grape spirit during fermentation to stop yeast activity, preserve sweetness, and increase alcohol.

Malvasia (Malmsey)
A grape variety used for the richest and sweetest style of Madeira.

Sercial
A high acid grape variety producing the driest style of Madeira.

Sotolon
An aroma active compound associated with walnut, curry leaf, maple syrup, and aged fortified wines.

Verdelho
A Madeira grape variety producing medium dry wines with smoky and saline notes.

Vinho da roda / Torna viagem
Historical Madeira wines intentionally sent on long sea voyages and returned to enhance flavor through heat and oxidation.

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Step into the steep, sunlit terraces of Portugal’s Douro Valley and explore how landscape, law, chemistry, and culture shaped one of the world’s most distinctive wines. 

In this episode of The Wine Lab, host Dr. Andreea Botezatu traces the story of Port from the Douro’s historic demarcation in 1756 to the precise moment fermentation is stopped with grape spirit. 

Follow the evolution of styles, from ruby’s vibrant fruit to the layered depth of long-aged tawnies, and learn how traditional lagares, the Benefício vineyard-grading system, and regulated aging all influence flavor and structure. 

Along the way, Port’s presence in literature, art, and history comes into focus, along with thoughtful food pairings that highlight each style’s personality. A deep, engaging journey through a wine shaped by place, technique, and time. 

Aguardente
A grape-derived spirit at 77% alcohol used to halt fermentation and fortify Port wine.

Anthocyanins
Pigments in grape skins responsible for red color; highly soluble in the ethanol-rich environment of Port.

Benefício System
The Douro’s vineyard classification system (A–F) that determines how much Port each vineyard is permitted to produce, based on quality factors.

Demarcated Region (DOP Porto)
The legally defined area in northern Portugal where Port must be produced to bear the name.

Foot Treading (Lagares)
Traditional method of crushing grapes with human feet in shallow granite tanks, maximizing extraction while avoiding seed bitterness.

Fortification
The process of adding grape spirit during fermentation to stop yeast activity and preserve natural grape sugar.

IVDP (Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e do Porto)
Regulatory body responsible for overseeing Port production, vineyard classification, and quality certification.

Oxidative Aging
Aging process, typical of Tawny Ports, where controlled oxygen exposure develops caramel, nut, and dried fruit notes.

Reductive Aging
Aging in environments with minimal oxygen exposure, typical of Ruby and Vintage Ports, preserving fresh fruit and color.

Sotolon
An aroma compound associated with oxidative aging; contributes nutty, maple-like, or warm spice notes in Tawny Port.

Vintage Declaration
Decision by Port houses to declare a year as suitable for Vintage Port, done only in exceptional harvests.

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In this episode of The Wine Lab, host Dr. Andreea Botezatu explores the scientific brilliance and cultural heritage of Sherry. From Andalucía’s luminous albariza soils to the flor yeasts that sculpt its aromatic identity, Sherry emerges as a wine shaped by geology, microbiology, and centuries of human expertise. We examine how fortification, performed after fermentation, determines whether a wine will age biologically as a Fino or oxidatively as an Oloroso, and how the solera system maintains continuity across generations. The episode also discusses sweetness levels, explaining how sun-dried PX and Moscatel wines are blended to create styles from Medium to Cream. With detours into Shakespeare, Poe, and Magellan’s voyages, this is a deep, compelling look at a wine that deserves fresh appreciation. 

Albariza
A white, chalk-rich soil formed from ancient marine sediments. Highly porous and capable of storing winter rainfall, sustaining vines through Andalucía’s dry summers.

Asoleo
A traditional sun-drying process used for Pedro Ximénez (PX) and Moscatel grapes. Grapes are laid on straw mats to concentrate sugars before fermentation.

Biological Aging
Aging that occurs under a living layer of flor at ~15% alcohol. This process protects wine from oxidation and imparts acetaldehyde-driven aromas typical of Fino and Manzanilla.

Criaderas
The upper tiers in the solera system, each holding wine of progressively younger average age. Wines from these tiers refresh the older levels below.

Dulce
A very sweet Sherry produced by blending dry Sherry with PX or Moscatel wine or concentrated must. Contains >140 g/L residual sugar.

Flor
A naturally forming film of specialized Saccharomyces yeasts that floats on the wine’s surface in partially filled barrels. It metabolizes ethanol and oxygen, generating acetaldehyde and protecting the wine from oxidation.

Fortification
The addition of neutral grape spirit after fermentation to raise alcohol. Determines whether a Sherry will age biologically (~15–15.5%) or oxidatively (~17–18%).

Grape Spirit (Destilado de vino)
A neutral distillate made from wine, used to fortify Sherry without altering aroma or flavor.

Manzanilla
A biologically aged Sherry produced exclusively in Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Noted for its delicacy and slight maritime influence.

Medium Sherry
A sweetened style created by blending dry Sherry with PX or Moscatel wine or must. Contains 5–115 g/L residual sugar.

Oloroso
An oxidatively aged Sherry fortified to ~17–18% alcohol to prevent flor formation. Rich, deep, and aromatic.

Oxidative Aging
Aging without flor, allowing controlled oxygen exposure. Produces darker color and flavors of walnut, spice, and dried fruit.

Pedro Ximénez (PX)
An intensely sweet Sherry made from sun-dried PX grapes. Known for flavors of raisin, molasses, coffee, and fig.

Solera
The lowest and oldest tier in the solera system, from sol (“ground”). Wine drawn for bottling comes from this level and is replenished from the criadera above.

Solera System
A dynamic, fractional aging and blending method using stacked tiers of barrels. Ensures stylistic consistency and continuity across decades.

Sweet Sherries (Cream, Medium, Dulce)
Styles created by blending dry Sherrie

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Icewine is one of the most challenging and extraordinary wines ever produced,a liquid born from winter itself. In this episode of The Wine Lab, Dr. Andreea Botezatu explores how a frozen accident in 1794 became one of the modern wine world’s most coveted styles. We travel from Germany to Canada’s Niagara Peninsula, through vineyards picked at –10°C, and into fermenters battling extreme osmotic stress, soaring Brix, and yeast pushed to its limits.

From the brutal harvest nights to the chemistry of freezing, from osmotolerant yeast to glycerol production, this episode unpacks the science behind icewine’s intensity and the economics, authenticity concerns, sensory profile, and even the best glass to pour it in.

A story of persistence, purpose, and prowess, this is icewine as you’ve never heard it: equal parts science, craft, and the beautiful madness of making sweetness in the dead of winter. 

GLOSSARY 

Icewine / Eiswein
Wine made from grapes naturally frozen on the vine and pressed while still frozen.

Brix (°Bx)
A measure of sugar concentration in grape must; icewine typically begins above 35°Bx.

Osmotic Stress
The pressure yeast face in high-sugar environments, slowing fermentation and challenging metabolism.

YAN (Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen)
The portion of nitrogen available to yeast; critical in supporting fermentation, especially in high-sugar musts.

Osmotolerant Yeast
Yeast strains selected or bred to survive fermentations with high sugar, low water activity, and strong osmotic pressure.

Glycerol
A fermentation byproduct that increases mouthfeel and viscosity, often elevated in icewine.

Norisoprenoids
Aroma compounds (e.g., β-damascenone) contributing notes of honey, dried fruit, and baked apple.

Monoterpenes
Aromatic compounds responsible for floral and citrus notes, especially in Riesling-based icewines.

Cryoextraction
Artificial freezing of grapes; not permitted in true icewine production.

Residual Sugar (RS)
Sugar remaining after fermentation; icewine typically ranges between 150–220 g/L.

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Before Champagne perfected the art of bubbles, there was pétillant naturel or pét-nat -  the ancestral, gracefully imperfect  way to make sparkling wine. In this episode of The Wine Lab, we explore the chemistry, the history, and the somewhat controlled chaos that defines this naturally effervescent style.

Why does pét-nat fizz differently? What actually happens when fermentation finishes inside a sealed bottle? And why are winemakers, from the Loire to California, falling back in love with this centuries-old technique?

From carbonic acid to crown caps, this episode reveals the science and spirit of a wine that refuses to be tamed.

Glossary

TermDefinitionPétillant Naturel (Pét-Nat) | A naturally sparkling wine made by bottling before primary fermentation is complete, so it finishes fermenting in the bottle (méthode ancestrale).
Méthode Ancestrale | The oldest method of sparkling wine production; fermentation finishes in bottle without added sugar or secondary yeast inoculation.
Méthode Traditionnelle | The traditional Champagne method involving a second fermentation in bottle, extended lees aging, and disgorgement.
Dosage | A mixture of sugar and wine added after disgorgement in traditional sparkling wines to balance acidity and adjust sweetness. Not used in pét-nat.
Lees | Dead yeast cells and other solids that settle after fermentation; can add texture and flavor when aged intentionally.
Autolysis | Breakdown of yeast cells over time, releasing compounds that add “brioche” or “toasty” notes to traditional sparkling wines.
Crown Cap | A metal cap similar to a beer cap, often used for pét-nat bottles due to lower pressure and rustic style.
Residual Sugar (RS) | Unfermented sugar remaining in the wine; in pét-nat, small amounts may remain depending on fermentation completion.
Carbonic Acid (H₂CO₃) | A weak acid formed when CO₂ dissolves in wine; contributes a slight tang and enhances perceived freshness.
Haze / Sediment | Cloudiness caused by yeast or solids remaining in unfiltered wines; common and expected in pét-nat.

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What makes Prosecco so different from Champagne or Cava?

 In this episode, Andreea takes you inside the tanks (almost literally) to explore the Charmat method, the clever bit of winemaking engineering that gives Prosecco its bright, floral personality.

We’ll look at how Glera grapes, stainless-steel pressure tanks, and precise temperature control create a wine built on freshness rather than aging. You’ll learn what “tirage” and “dosage” mean in Prosecco, why it skips lees aging, and how its chemistry translates into texture, aroma, and food pairing magic.

By the end, you’ll know exactly why those bubbles feel lighter, taste fruitier, and disappear a little faster — and why that’s the whole point.

Glossary

• Charmat (Martinotti) Method:
  The tank-fermentation process used for most Prosecco, where the second fermentation happens in a sealed stainless-steel tank rather than in the bottle.
• Tirage:
  A mixture of sugar and yeast added to the base wine to start the secondary fermentation.
• Dosage:
  A small addition of sugar or sweetened wine used to adjust the final sweetness level of sparkling wine (Brut, Extra Dry, Dry).
• Lees:
  The spent yeast cells left after fermentation. Prosecco is typically filtered off the lees quickly, preserving freshness.
• Glera:
  The main grape variety used for Prosecco — formerly called “Prosecco” until the DOCG rules renamed it.
• Autolysis:
  The breakdown of yeast cells during extended lees aging, responsible for the toasty and bready notes in Champagne — largely absent in Prosecco.
• Isobaric Bottling:
  Bottling under equal pressure to retain dissolved CO₂ and prevent the wine from losing its sparkle.

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Across Europe, bubbles tell stories. In this episode of The Wine Lab, we explore two sparkling legends - Champagne and Cava -  both born from the same meticulous process yet shaped by different lands, grapes, and histories.

We’ll uncover how the traditional method transforms still wine into a storm of fine bubbles, why the same Brut label can taste drier in Champagne than in Cava, and how yeast, sugar, and time create that signature creamy texture and brioche aroma.

From royal coronations in Reims to sunny Catalan cellars, discover the shared science and unique soul of the world’s most beloved sparkling wines - proof that joy, sometimes, can be engineered.

Glossary

Méthode Traditionnelle (Traditional Method):
The classic process of making sparkling wine, involving a second fermentation inside the bottle that traps carbon dioxide and creates natural bubbles.

Tirage:
A mixture of sugar and yeast added to the base wine to start secondary fermentation.

Lees / Autolysis:
Dead yeast cells that settle after fermentation. Over time, they break down, releasing flavor compounds that add creaminess and notes of bread, nuts, and brioche.

Riddling (Remuage):
Gradual turning of bottles to collect sediment in the neck before removal.

Disgorgement (Dégorgement):
Freezing and ejecting the sediment plug from the bottle after aging.

Dosage:
The final addition of wine and sugar after disgorgement to balance acidity and determine sweetness level.

Residual Sugar (RS):
The amount of natural grape sugar remaining in wine after fermentation, measured in grams per liter (g/L).

Brut / Extra Brut / Brut Nature:
Dryness levels in sparkling wine. Brut Nature is bone dry (0–3 g/L sugar), Extra Brut slightly less dry (up to 6 g/L), and Brut the most common (up to 12 g/L).

Gyropalette:
A mechanized riddling machine invented in Spain, now used worldwide to automate the process.

Champagne Grapes:
Primarily Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier.

• Chardonnay brings elegance, freshness, and citrus-mineral notes.
• Pinot Noir adds body, structure, and red-fruit depth.
• Pinot Meunier contributes softness, fruitiness, and approachability.

Cava Grapes:
Traditionally Macabeu (Viura), Xarel·lo, and Parellada, sometimes joined by Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, or Trepat for rosé styles.

• Macabeu offers floral and apple notes with a gentle profile.
• Xarel·lo provides structure, acidity, and subtle spice.
• Parellada adds lift, freshness, and delicate citrus.
  Together, they express the Mediterranean warmth and brightness that define Cava.

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In this episode of The Wine Lab, Andreea takes you inside one of winemaking’s most iconic tools — the oak barrel. From Celtic craftsmanship to modern coopering, we’ll explore how fire, oxygen, and time turn simple wood into a vessel of transformation.

Discover why oak became the gold standard, what happens during toasting, and how micro-oxygenation softens tannins and stabilizes color. Learn about the differences between French, American, and Hungarian oak, the chemistry behind aging, and even the future of sustainable cooperage — including experimental ideas like biochar barrels and hybrid woods.

It’s the story of the barrel as both instrument and ingredient — a breathing partner that connects forest, fire, and fermentation in one seamless conversation.

Glossary of Key Terms 

Barrique – The standard Bordeaux-style oak barrel, holding about 225 liters of wine. Its small size increases oak influence and oxygen exposure.

Toasting – The process of heating the inside of a barrel with fire to bend the staves and develop flavor compounds like vanillin, furfural, and spice phenols.

Ellagitannins – Polyphenolic compounds in oak wood that stabilize color and influence mouthfeel during aging; they also act as antioxidants.

Micro-oxygenation – The slow diffusion of oxygen through the wood, which polymerizes tannins, softens structure, and develops complexity in wine.

Foudres – Very large wooden vats (1,000–20,000 L) used for aging; they allow oxidative benefits of wood with minimal oak flavor influence.

Hemicellulose and Lignin – Structural components of wood that decompose under heat to form aromatic compounds like vanilla, caramel, and smoke notes.

Angel’s Share – The portion of wine (water and alcohol) that evaporates through the barrel over time, concentrating flavor and altering balance.

Acetaldehyde – A compound formed by mild oxidation of ethanol; in small amounts, it adds brightness and nuttiness, but in excess it can smell bruised or sherried.

Biochar – A carbon-rich material produced by pyrolysis of biomass in low oxygen; being explored in cooperage as a sustainable, oxygen-modulating material.

Hybrid Barrel – A barrel made from different woods (e.g., oak staves with acacia or cherry heads) to achieve specific flavor or structural goals.

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In this episode of The Wine Lab, we explore the science and story of tannins: what they are, where they come from, and why some wines feel silky while others grip your gums.

From the ancient craft of leather tanning to modern barrel aging, we trace how these polyphenolic compounds shape wine’s structure, color, and longevity. We’ll look at how fermentation temperature, pH, and rising alcohol shift what gets extracted from skins and seeds — and how acidity changes the way tannins feel on your palate.

You’ll also learn why black tea gives you the same dry feeling as a young Cabernet, that tannins aren’t probably the cause of wine headaches, and why  some white wines  have more tannin character than you might think.

So pour a glass, and let’s explore the chemistry of feeling wine.

Astringency – The tactile, drying sensation in the mouth caused by tannins binding to salivary proteins, reducing lubrication. It’s a feeling, not a flavor.

Tannins – Polyphenolic compounds found in grape skins, seeds, stems, and oak. They contribute structure, color stability, and aging potential to wine.

Condensed tannins (Proanthocyanidins) – Tannins naturally present in grapes; built from flavan-3-ols. They shape a wine’s body and mouthfeel.

Hydrolyzable tannins – Tannins derived from oak barrels, composed of gallic or ellagic acid units. They provide antioxidant capacity and subtle structure during aging.

Anthocyanins – Water-soluble pigments in grape skins that give red and purple wines their color. They stabilize when bonded to tannins.

Maceration – The period during fermentation when grape skins and seeds are in contact with the juice, allowing extraction of color, flavor, and tannins.

pH / Acidity – A measure of wine’s acid level. Lower pH (higher acidity) makes tannins feel firmer; higher pH makes them feel softer.

Polymerization – The process where small tannin molecules link into longer chains over time, softening texture and reducing astringency.

Ethanol – The alcohol formed during fermentation. It changes the solubility of phenolics, enhancing seed-tannin extraction but slowing pigment release.

Tribology – The study of friction and lubrication. Used in wine sensory research to explain how tannins affect mouthfeel.

Ellagitannins – Oak-derived tannins that help stabilize color and protect wine from oxidation during barrel aging.

Extended maceration – A winemaking technique where wine remains on skins after fermentation to extract additional tannins and complexity.

Aging – The slow chemical evolution of wine after fermentation. Tannins polymerize and precipitate, softening texture over time.

Bitterness – A taste detected by receptors on the tongue, distinct from astringency (a physical sensation).

Color stability – The persistence of wine color over time, maintained by reactions between tannins and anthocyanins that form more stable pigments.

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What do Port, Sherry, Madeira, Marsala, and Vermouth all have in common? They’re wines with an extra ingredient — spirit. In this episode of The Wine Lab, Dr. Andreea Botezatu explores how fortification began as a practical solution for preserving wine on long sea voyages and evolved into a craft that shaped trade, taste, and culture.

From Shakespeare’s Falstaff praising “sack” to George Washington’s love for Madeira, we’ll travel through history and a little chemistry to understand what makes fortified wines so enduring. You’ll learn about their different origins, what spirits are used (always grape-derived!), how to serve them, and the best ways to enjoy them — from chilled Fino with tapas to Vintage Port and Stilton by the fire.

A story of science, adaptation, and taste — all in one small pour.

Glossary

Aguardente vínica

A neutral grape brandy used to fortify Port and other Portuguese wines. It typically sits around 77% ABV and is added mid-fermentation to stop the process and preserve natural sweetness.
🔗 Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e do Porto (IVDP)

Amontillado

A style of Sherry that starts aging biologically under flor (like a Fino), then continues oxidatively after the flor dies off, creating nutty, caramelized aromas.
🔗 Sherry Wines – Amontillado Overview (Consejo Regulador)

Copita

A small, tulip-shaped glass traditionally used for serving Sherry. Today, the Sherry Council recommends small white-wine glasses instead, to allow greater aromatic expression.
 🔗 Sherry Wines – How to Serve Sherry

Flor

A layer of yeast that forms naturally on the surface of Fino and Manzanilla Sherries, protecting the wine from oxidation and producing unique acetaldehyde-driven aromas (almond, green apple, saline).
🔗 Sherry Wines – The Role of Flor

Fino

The driest style of Sherry, aged entirely under flor. Fresh, crisp, and delicate, often served chilled with tapas or fried foods.
 🔗 Sherry Wines – Fino

Madeira

A fortified wine from the Portuguese island of Madeira, famous for its oxidative and heat-influenced production process (estufagem). Styles range from dry (Sercial) to rich (Malmsey).
🔗 Instituto do Vinho, do Bordado e do Artesanato da Madeira (IVBAM)

Marsala

A fortified wine produced around the city of Marsala in western Sicily, Italy. Often made with local varieties like Grillo and Catarratto, and sometimes enriched with cooked grape must (mosto cotto).
🔗 Consorzio di Tutela del Vino Marsala DOC

Oloroso

A Sherry style aged entirely by oxidation, resulting in a full-bodied, nutty, and often semi-sweet wine.
 🔗 Sherry Wines – Oloroso

Port

A fortified wine from Portugal’s Douro Valley, produced in various styles (Ruby, Tawny, Vintage). Fermentation is stopped early by adding grape spirit, retaining residual sugar.

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